The Schema and Organization of the Cell: An Introduction to Ernst Brücke's Die Elementarorganismen (1861).

Ernst Brücke's 1861 essay Die Elementarorganismen has often been cited as a watershed in the history of physiology as well as in the history of cell theory. In its time it was widely read as a reform of animal cell theory, shifting the concept of the cell away from Schleiden and Schwann's original cell schema of a membranous vesicle with a nucleus, and towards the protoplasm theory that had developed in botany, centered on the cell's living contents. It was also notorious for its arguments against the necessity of both the nucleus and the cell membrane. An English translation of "The Elementary Organisms" is presented for the first time in this journal issue, with annotations and illustrations, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-024-09773-9 . Brücke's essay was not only an intervention into cell theory: historians can read it as a continuation of debates on the nature of the organism and theories of organization, and as an epistemological meditation on the microscope. In addition, although Brücke was known as a founder of the Berlin school of organic physics, "The Elementary Organisms" shows how he combined an avant-garde physicalist physiology with a much older tradition of comparative anatomy and physiology. The following introductory essay will provide a scientific biography of Ernst Brücke up to 1863, with background on debates on biological organization, cell theory, and muscle histology.

The Elementary Organisms.

In 1861 the physiologist Ernst Brücke (1819-1892) published "The Elementary Organisms," calling for a major reform of the definition of the animal cell. An English translation of Brücke's essay is presented here for the first time. In this translation the numbered footnotes 1-9 are Brücke's own; alphabetical endnotes A-HH are my own annotations, with additional references to works cited by Brücke. Figures referenced by Brücke but not included in his original essay are also provided. I have also presented an introductory essay to my translation that provides background on Brücke and his arguments: "The Schema and Organization of the Cell," https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-024-09774-8 , in this same issue of the Journal of the History of Biology.

Historical Perspectives on the Use Plastic-Based Cements in Endodontics and Prosthodontics: Part 1 - Oxychlorides.

Oxychloride of zinc was used for years to treat teeth by different approaches and procedures. The success of material usage depended on how well the procedures were conducted and largely on the mix of the material. This article aims to review the evolutionary history of this material with a view to its clinical uses, properties, procedures, applications, and successes when used in the management of decayed tooth structure. Perspectives proffered within focus cover 110 years from 1850 to 1960."Who has not mentally asked the question, as he has taxed himself and his patient to almost complete exhaustion in some dental operation of unusual magnitude or length, Is there not some way either to prevent this destruction of tissue or to restore these organs when attacked, unattended by the severe mental and physical strain upon the operator, and the shrinking, dread, and suffering to the patient which the present general practice and teaching involve?…If the profession would avert this evil, observation must be extended and accurate; new remedies must be sought and applied; investigation by experiment made popular, and the employment of other than mere mechanical remedies encouraged."

Editorial - Venturing into the Depths of Historical Perspectives in Dentistry & Medicine.

With this volume of the Journal of the History of Dentistry we are proud to introduce to our readers and our healing professions, in-depth Essays that focuses on our historical evolution. One might ask, "What is an Essay and Why is This Unique?" The simplest definition of an essay is a non-fictional written work that focuses on a particular subject, sometimes in general terms and sometimes in depth. The word "essay" is derived from the French word "essai," (or as a collection "Essais) meaning trial or attempt. The first use of this approach to address a particular issue has often been attributed to the Frenchman Michel de Montaigne, born in 1533 (Fig. 1).

A Timeline of the History of Dentistry.

History of Dentistry starts from the moment the Late Paleolithic Man used a toothpick fashioned from a bone or wood splinter, or the moment our human ancestors began to manipulate the surface of a tooth to remove its retentiveness, so food does not get stuck. That was at least 14,000 years ago, based on available evidence. The current timeline, compiled in this article, is one of many published over the years. However, this timeline incorporates three new strategies. First, it extends to select medical and fundamental dental discoveries, as the History of Dentistry can only be told with the main events within the History of Medicine. Second, it is more detailed (350 entries) than any previous timeline the author has encountered. Third, several critical primary references to support events listed in this timeline characterize this effort. Finally, 130 illustrations are included to improve the visualization of dates. The manuscript also includes a new display of the five main stages of dentistry throughout its history.

Opposed to Pain: Antikamnia Chemical Company.

The Antikamnia (AK) Chemical Company founded in 1890, which eventually was renamed The Antikamnia Remedy Company in 1819, was an important medicine company that thrived prior to passage of the 1906 Food and Drug act using smart worldwide marketing. As dangerous as the AK products were, success continued after 1906 by pursuing methods to flout regulations and stick to the marketing methods and legal maneuvering that kept AK sales strong. This article describes the tumultuous history of one of the most successful drug companies between 1890 and well into the 1920s.

Editorial - A View of Our Upcoming Meeting 2024.

Welcome to the Cream City - Milwaukee, for our next annual meeting of the American Academy of the History of Dentistry. Why the Cream City and not The Beer Capital? The answer lies deep within the geological history of the state. Southeastern Wisconsin contains the glacial lake deposits of silts and clays, being the southern border of the last ice age over 10,000 years ago. These raw materials were used for the bricks, which when fired turned yellow and which were used to construct many buildings throughout the 19th century. Noted for their cream color edifices still exist having been built with these bricks.

Trichloroacetic Acid - Historical Origins and Dental Applications.

The use of trichloroacetic acid in dentistry has been advocated by several authors in the last 50 years due to its action on invasive gingival tissues that are seen in the presence of cervical resorption or proximal cavities. Publications addressing this substance and its applications are completely silent regarding its historical evolution or make general claims regarding its original source without substantiation. This perspective will attempt to provide the missing links to this substance and its contemporary use in dentistry, specifically in Endodontics.

Historical Perspectives and Comparisons on the Use Plastic-Based Cements in Endodontics and Prosthodontics: Part 2 - Oxyphosphates.

Oxyphosphate of zinc was used for years to treat teeth by different approaches and procedures. Like oxychloride of zinc, success of the material depended on how well the procedures were conducted and largely on the mix of the material. This article aims to review the evolutionary history of this material with a view to its clinical uses, properties, procedures, applications, and successes when used in the management of decayed tooth structure and rebuilding of teeth. Perspectives proffered within focus cover 110 years from 1850 to 1960.

Dentistry from Ancient Phoenicia to Contemporary Lebanon: The USJ Faculty of Dental Medicine in Beirut.

In 2023, the Faculty of Dental Medicine, Saint Joseph University of Beirut (USJ) celebrated its 100th anniversary, marking a century of unwavering commitment to academic excellence. This milestone offers a valuable opportunity to navigate the history and evolution of dentistry in Lebanon, from its ancient roots in Phoenicia to its modern developments. It chronicles the transformative journey of dentistry while recognizing the key role played against all odds by the Society of Jesus and Saint Joseph University of Beirut in fostering the growth of dentistry as a distinct medical discipline.

Dentists, Their Handicraft Hobbies and City of London Livery Companies.

Many successful dentists also spend much time on hobbies. Unsurprisingly many of them involve the use of their hands, often but not always honing skills learned in dentistry. All the people discussed have another essential skill, the ability to design. The paper demonstrates clearly that striving for professional success leaves room for other activities.

Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania Pamphlet Proselytizing Preventive Dentistry, by Drs. Morrison and Henry.

Advice on preventive dental care for children, prior to 1900 is scarce. In the 1890s, Drs. Morrison and Henry, two Punxsutawny, Pennsylvania dentists, cogently offered such advice in their promotional pamphlet, along with some lessons on life, as reflected by precious stones.

Artificial Intelligence and the Research and Reporting of Dental History.

Artificial intelligence is much in the news. One issue is whether it might be a useful tool for dental research. This paper provides ad overview of AI and explores its usefulness in some simple history of dentistry topics, including potential dangers.

Bone Toothbrush Handles in Chinese Tang Dynasty Ash Pits.

China has been recognized as an important birthplace of dentistry in the world. The bone toothbrush from ash pits in the museum of the Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine confirms that the Chinese had the awareness of cleaning their teeth and the tools to do for over 1000 years. These findings help to promotes the study of the historical development of dentistry in China.

Pierre Fauchard's Contribution to Oral Medicine and Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology: An historical essay.

Pierre Fauchard, considered the father of dentistry, contributed to the development of different fields of dentistry that we know today. However, the contribution of this important individual to the fields of oral medicine and oral and maxillofacial pathology is unknown. This study aimed to identify Pierre Fauchard's contribution to these areas of dentistry. We focused on "Le Chirurgien Dentiste, or Traité des Dents" in both French and English, looking for information about the oral diseases diagnosed and treated by Fauchard. Information on patient history, disease description, treatment applied, and clinical follow-up was collected. A contemporary analysis of the diseases was performed, and the collected data were systematized, reported, and analyzed descriptively, according to the current literature on the addressed topics. Information on conditions such as scurvy, parulides, epulides, oral ulcers, dentoalveolar abscesses, dental alterations, and post-exodontia incidents were elucidated. Findings indicated that Pierre Fauchard described, diagnosed, and treated different soft and hard tissue diseases of great interest to the fields of oral medicine and oral and maxillofacial pathology.

Analysis of factors related to the morphological evolution of Lingnan export mugs in the 18th-20th centuries in the context of one belt and one road.

As a significant trade item on the ancient Silk Road, the evolution of mug shapes represents a confluence of Eastern and Western economic history and cultural-artistic exchanges, also reflecting the flourishing export culture of Guangzhou. This paper analyzes the functional and social factors influencing the morphological changes of Lingnan mugs from 1616 to 1949 from the perspective of quantitative typological analysis. The overall design trend of these mugs transitioned from complex to simple, enhancing user comfort, while variations in mug scale reflect the diversity of consumer classes and regional drinking cultures. Among the 30 mugs analyzed, the average capacity was 356ml, with a range of 1588ml. Common shapes included cylindrical bodies and ear-shaped handles. Morphologically, the belly of the mugs transformed from arc-barrel bodies (emphasizing heat retention) to bulbous bodies, and eventually to cylindrical bodies (combining heat retention, practicality, and economy), with handles also showing signs of East-West integration. The analysis of the mug body' s inclination, with handle-side junction angles ranging from 34° to 53° and wall-side junction angles from 50° to 90°, indicates that these features are associated with stability in placement, aesthetic design, and practicality in liquid containment. These morphological evolutions reflect genuine responses to market demands and advancements in production technology, manifesting as products of market orientation and societal needs. By measuring changes in morphology, scale, volume, and external contour curves, this paper addresses how social factors shape material morphology in an academic context.