Allergenicity of an enzymatic hydrolysate of soybean 2S protein.

BACKGROUND: This study was performed to examine how the characteristics of soybean 2S protein influence allergenicity after enzymatic hydrolysis. Soybean 2S protein was extracted and enzymatic hydrolysis was performed using pepsin and chymotrypsin. Allergenicity was observed using soybean-sensitive patients' sera. RESULTS: Only 13.3% (6/45) of soybean-sensitive patients reacted to soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (SKTI), known as the major allergen of soybean 2S protein. After peptic hydrolysis for 90 min at pH 1.2, the intensity of SKTI decreased to 25% but was still visible on SDS-PAGE. Chymotryptic hydrolysis following peptic hydrolysis at pH 8 for 60 min showed a limited hydrolytic effect on soybean 2S protein. Peptic hydrolysis of soybean 2S protein partially reduced the allergenicity of soybean 2S protein, while chymotryptic hydrolysis following peptic hydrolysis increased slightly the allergenicity. CONCLUSION: Food allergy caused by soybean 2S protein occurred in part of the soybean-sensitive patients. SKTI was partially digested after peptic hydrolysis for 90 min. The allergenicity was decreased with peptic hydrolysis, while subsequent treatment of chymotrypsin increased slightly the allergenicity.

Target-mediated clearance and bio-distribution of a monoclonal antibody against the Kunitz-type protease inhibitor 2 domain of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor.

INTRODUCTION: A humanised monoclonal antibody, concizumab, that binds with high affinity to the Kunitz-type protease inhibitor (KPI) 2 domain of human tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) is in clinical development. It promotes coagulation by neutralising the inhibitory function of TFPI and may provide a subcutaneous prophylaxis option for patients with haemophilia. We aimed to study biodistribution and pharmacokinetics (PK) of concizumab. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Blockage of cellular TFPI by concizumab was measured by tissue factor/Factor VIIa-mediated Factor X activation on human EA.hy926 cells. Biodistribution of concizumab was analysed in rabbits by immunohistology, and the PK was measured in rabbits and rats. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Concizumab bound to cell surface TFPI on EA.hy926 cells and neutralised TFPI inhibition of Factor X activation. The antibody cross-reacted with rabbit TFPI, but not with rat TFPI, allowing for comparative PK studies. PK data in rats described a log-linear profile typical for a non-binding antibody, whereas PK data in rabbits revealed a non-linear, dose-dependent profile, consistent with a target-mediated clearance mechanism. Immunohistology in rabbits during target-saturation showed localisation of the antibody on the endothelium of the microvasculature in several organs. We observed a marked co-localisation with endogenous rabbit TFPI, but a negligible sub-endothelial build-up. Concizumab binds and neutralises the inhibitory effect of cell surface-bound TFPI. The PK profile observed in rabbits is consistent with a TFPI-mediated drug disposition. Double immunofluorescence shows co-localisation of the antibody with TFPI on the endothelium of the microvasculature and points to this TFPI as a putative target involved in the clearance mechanism.

The integral and extrinsic bioactive proteins in the aqueous extracted soybean oil bodies.

Soybean oil bodies (OBs), naturally pre-emulsified soybean oil, have been examined by many researchers owing to their great potential utilizations in food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and other applications requiring stable oil-in-water emulsions. This study was the first time to confirm that lectin, Gly m Bd 28K (Bd 28K, one soybean allergenic protein), Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI), and Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI) were not contained in the extracted soybean OBs even by neutral pH aqueous extraction. It was clarified that the well-known Gly m Bd 30K (Bd 30K), another soybean allergenic protein, was strongly bound to soybean OBs through a disulfide bond with 24 kDa oleosin. One steroleosin isoform (41 kDa) and two caleosin isoforms (27 kDa, 29 kDa), the integral bioactive proteins, were confirmed for the first time in soybean OBs, and a considerable amount of calcium, necessary for the biological activities of caleosin, was strongly bound to OBs. Unexpectedly, it was found that 24 kDa and 18 kDa oleosins could be hydrolyzed by an unknown soybean endoprotease in the extracted soybean OBs, which might give some hints for improving the enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction processing of soybean free oil.

Immune response in mice to ingested soya protein: antibody production, oral tolerance and maternal transfer.

While allergic reactions to soya are increasingly investigated, the normal immune response to ingested soya is scarcely described. In the present study, we wanted to characterise the soya-specific immune response in healthy mice ingesting soya protein. Mice fed a soya-containing diet (F0) and mice of the first (F1) and second (F2) offspring generation bred on a soya protein-free diet were used either directly or were transferred between the soya-containing and soya protein-free diet during pregnancy or neonatal life. The mice were compared as to levels of naturally occurring specific antibodies analysed by ELISA, and to the presence of oral tolerance detected as a suppressed antibody and cell-proliferation response upon immunisation with soya protein. F0 mice generated soya-specific antibodies, while oral tolerance to the same soya proteins was also clearly induced. When F0 dams were transferred to soya protein-free feed before mating, the F1 and F2 offspring generations showed no significantly different response, indicating that soya-specific immune components were not maternally transmitted. However, the ingestion of dietary soya protein by F1 mice during late pregnancy and lactation caused a lasting antibody response in the offspring, but in this case in the absence of oral tolerance. This indicates that, under certain conditions, factors involved in spontaneous antibody production can be transmitted from mother to offspring. Understanding the immune response to soya protein ingested under healthy conditions is important in the assessment of adverse effects of soya protein and in the use of animal allergy models. The present results add to this understanding.

The hepatocyte growth factor regulatory factors in human breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) stimulates tumor cell-cell interactions, matrix adhesion, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis. This factor is produced as an inactive precursor called pro-HGF, which requires proteolytic conversion, by HGF activator (HGFA) and matriptase, to evoke a biological response. Two new HGFA inhibitors, HAI-1 and HAI-2, inhibit the generation of biologically active HGF, through their interaction with HGFA. This study determined the expression of this HGF regulatory system in breast cancer. We examined HGF, the HGF receptor (c-Met), HGFA, matriptase, and the activation inhibitors (HAI-1 and HAI-2), tissues from patients with breast cancer. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Breast cancer tissue (n = 100) and normal background tissue (n = 20) was obtained immediately after surgery. The median follow-up for the patients was 72 months. HGF, c-Met, HGFA, matriptase-1, HAI-1, and HAI-2 expression was quantified using real-time quantitative PCR. The distribution of these factors in mammary tissues was also examined through immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: The breast cancer specimens expressed a significantly higher level of HGF, c-Met, HGFA, HAI-1, and HAI-2, but not matriptase, compared with the normal background tissues. Tumor tissues from node-positive patients expressed a higher level of HGFA than from the patients without nodal involvement. Interestingly, HAI-2 was expressed to a lower degree in positive nodes than that of the node-negative breast cancer tissues. HAI-1 and HAI-2 were both significantly reduced in grade 3 tumors compared with the well-differentiated tumors. In addition, on comparison of Tumor-Node-Metastasis (TNM) classification groups, HAI-2 was also found to be statistically lower in the TNM 3 breast cancer group when compared with TNM groups 1 and 2, thus associated with a poor prognosis. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that there are aberrant levels of HGF, c-Met, HGFA, HAI-1, and HAI-2 expressed in breast cancer tissues compared with background breast tissue. HAI-1 and HAI-2 are expressed to a significantly lower level in poorly differentiated breast tumors, and HAI-2 is also inversely correlated with nodal involvement and tumor spread. Overall a low level of HAI-2 in the breast cancer tissues was associated with an overall poor outlook. Therefore, the HGF regulatory system may have an important role in the progression of breast cancer.

Low-dose oral tolerance due to antigen in the diet suppresses differentially the cholera toxin-adjuvantized IgE, IgA and IgG response.

BACKGROUND: Cholera toxin (CT) is used as a mucosal adjuvant amongst other applications for studying food allergy because oral administration of antigen with CT induces an antigen-specific type 2 response, including IgE and IgA production. Previously established oral tolerance due to antigen in the diet may radically impact on the CT-adjuvantized immune response. The present study served to evaluate the effect of previously established low-dose oral tolerance on the CT-adjuvantized immune response towards a food antigen. METHODS: Mice fed a diet containing microgram levels of the soy protein Kunitz soy-trypsin inhibitor (KSTI) (F0 mice) and mice fed a soy-free diet (F2 mice) were orally immunized with KSTI and CT. KSTI-specific serum IgG1, IgG2a, IgA and IgE and fecal IgA were monitored. KSTI-stimulated cell proliferation and interleukin (IL)-6 production were determined. RESULTS: The anti-KSTI IgE and IgA responses in the F0 mice were substantially suppressed, while the IgG1 and IgG2a responses were not suppressed after five oral immunizations. The response suppression tended to decline with increasing numbers of immunizations suggesting that the suppression could be overcome by multiple immunizations. However, cell proliferation and IL-6 production were clearly suppressed even after five immunizations. CONCLUSIONS: Priorly established low-dose oral tolerance considerably suppressed the CT-adjuvantized KSTI-specific IgE, IgA and cellular immune response but only weakly and transiently the IgG response. The results revealed that low-dose oral tolerance includes the mucosal IgA response and that CT, albeit mediating an antigen-specific response, does not fully abrogate previously established oral tolerance.

Experimental parameters differentially affect the humoral response of the cholera-toxin-based murine model of food allergy.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have developed a murine model of IgE-mediated food allergy based on oral coadministration of antigen and cholera toxin (CT) to establish a maximal response for studying immunopathogenic mechanisms and immunotherapeutic strategies. However, for studying subtle immunomodulating factors or factors effective during response initiation, this maximal response-based model is less suitable due to a lack of sensitivity. Therefore, in attempts to identify essential parameters to fine-tune the immune response towards a submaximal level, potentially more sensitive, we were interested in characterizing the individual effects of the parameters in the CT-based model: CT dose, antigen type and dose, and number of immunizations. METHODS: BALB/c mice were orally sensitized weekly for 3 or 7 weeks with graded doses of CT and various food antigens (soy-trypsin inhibitor, ovalbumin or ovomucoid). Antigen-specific IgG1, IgG2a, IgA and IgE were monitored by ELISA. RESULTS: The CT dose exerted a clear dose-dependent effect on the antigen-specific antibody response whereas the antigen dose tended to affect the kinetics of the developing response. Both the intensity and kinetics of the antibody response depended on the type of antigen and number of immunizations. CONCLUSIONS: The critical parameters of the CT-based murine allergy model differentially control the intensity and kinetics of the developing immune response. Adjustment of these parameters could be a key tool for tailoring the response to submaximal levels rendering the model potentially more sensitive for evaluating the effect of subtle immunomodulating factors that would be lost in the maximal response-based model.

Identification of four novel potato (Solanum tuberosum) allergens belonging to the family of soybean trypsin inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: We have previously identified patatin (Sol t 1) of potato tubers as a major food allergen among atopic children. In addition to Sol t 1, concomitant IgE binding to other, then unidentified, potato proteins was observed. METHODS: Purification and identification of the putative allergens were done by both standard and advanced methods of protein chemistry. The patient series comprised 39 children with positive skin prick test (SPT) to raw potato. Immunoblotting and ELISA were used to examine IgE-binding ability and skin prick testing to assess in vivo reactivity of the purified potato proteins. RESULTS: Four IgE-binding potato proteins with molecular masses ranging from 16 to 20 kDa were purified and identified as cathepsin D-, cysteine-, and aspartic protease inhibitors belonging to the family of soybean trypsin inhibitors (Kunitz type). The proteins were designated Sol t 2, Sol t 3.0101, Sol t 3.0102, and Sol t 4. In ELISA, 51% of the sera of the 39 atopic children showed specific IgE to Sol t 2, 43% to Sol t 3.0101, 58% to Sol t 3.0102, and 67% to Sol t 4, respectively. All these four allergens were able to produce positive wheal-and-flare responses in SPT. CONCLUSION: In addition to Sol t 1, potato tubers contain several proteins belonging to the family of soybean trypsin inhibitors against which atopic children with positive SPT responses to raw potato have in vitro and in vivo reactive IgE antibodies.

Micro-assay to measure the allergenicity of a Kunitz-type soybean trypsin inhibitor toward Balb/c mice by using RBL-2H3 cells.

The allergenicity of a Kunitz-type soybean trypsin inhibitor (KSTI) was investigated by a micro-assay of beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase released from RBL-2H3 cells primed with the anti-KSTI serum. KSTI stimulated the release of beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase from RBL-2H3 cells primed with the antiserum. The response of RBL-2H3 cells to the reaginic activity of the mouse anti-KSTI serum correlates fairly well with that by the passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) test, the sensitivity of both assays appearing to be similar. These results suggest that measuring the beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase released from RBL-2H3 is a convenient way for studying the allergen or the reaginic activity of a murine serum in place of the PCA test.

Lol p XI, a new major grass pollen allergen, is a member of a family of soybean trypsin inhibitor-related proteins.

BACKGROUND: Monoclonal antibodies were obtained against an unknown allergen from Lolium perenne grass pollen. The allergen had an apparent molecular mass of 18 kd on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Earlier immunoblotting studies had shown that carbohydrate-specific IgG antibodies recognize an antigen of similar size. OBJECTIVE: We sought to characterize the allergen biochemically and immunologically. METHODS: The amino acid sequence of the allergen was determined by automated Edman degradation, and its monosaccharide composition was determined by gas chromatographic analysis. A panel of 270 grass pollen-positive sera was assessed in a RAST with the purified allergen. Protease digestion (proteinase K) and chemical deglycosylation (trifluoromethane sulfonic acid) were used to distinguish between carbohydrate and peptide epitopes for IgE antibodies. RESULTS: The allergen was shown to be a glycoprotein with a molecular mass of 16 kd, of which 8% is carbohydrate. Its amino acid sequence shares 32% homology with soybean trypsin inhibitor (Kunitz) but lacks its active site. No homology was found with known grass pollen allergens, hence it was designated Lol p XI. A high degree of homology (44%) was found with a tree pollen allergen, Ole e I, the major allergen of olive pollen. More than 65% of grass pollen-positive sera had IgE against Lol p XI. IgE reactivity was demonstrated both with the carbohydrate moiety and the peptide backbone. CONCLUSIONS: Lol p XI is a new major grass pollen allergen carrying an IgE-binding carbohydrate determinant. Lol p XI is structurally related to the major allergen from olive pollen.

Detection of immunologically related Kunitz and Bowman-Birk proteinase inhibitors expressed during potato tuber development.

Antiserum against a potato Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor (PKPI) expressed in Escherichia coli was produced. In immunoblotting assays of proteins from potato tubers cultured in vitro, three proteins reacted to the antiserum, two of 20 kDa and one of 10 kDa. Their N-termini were sequenced. While the 20 kDa proteins showed 59 and 90% identity to PKPI, the 10 kDa one had 65% identity to soybean C-II proteinase inhibitor. Characterization of the temporal expression of these proteins showed that both could be detected from 10 days after induction of tuberization (DAI) in vitro, but the times when maximum amounts of PKPI and 10 kDa protein could be detected were different, corresponding to 22 and 32 DAI, respectively. The amounts of these proteins decreased in the following stages, and no positive reaction of the antiserum with mature tuber proteins could be found. The 20 kDa proteins were also detected in early stages of development of potato tubers grown in the field, indicating that these proteins are expressed during normal tuber development, and differ from the PKPIs reported previously.

High-performance capillary electrophoresis for characterization of hapten-protein conjugates used for production of antibodies against soyasaponin I.

Micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography using sodium cholate as the micellar phase has been investigated for characterization of hapten-protein conjugates. Special focus has been placed on the hapten soyasaponin I which is a quantitatively dominating glycoside in seeds of several legumes including pea (Pisum sativum L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Soyasaponin I has been isolated from pea and used as hapten for production of anti-saponin specific polyclonal antibodies. Soyasaponin I was coupled to Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitor (KSTI) and bovine serum albumin. The degree of coupling was determined by high-performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE). Capillaries dynamically coated with zwitterions were found to be efficient for reduction of interaction between the silica capillary surface and the proteins. The applicability of HPCE for determination of coupling density was confirmed by investigation of a model hapten (p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-galactoside; PNPG) coupled to KSTI. The PNPG-KSTI conjugates were examined by both HPCE and by spectrophotometric determination of the PNPG density on KSTI. The HPCE method was shown to be efficient in studies of the formation of hapten-protein conjugates and to be more specific than alternative techniques applied for determination of coupling densities.

High-performance capillary electrophoresis for the determination of trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors and their association with trypsin, chymotrypsin and monoclonal antibodies.

High-performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE) was adapted for the determination of Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitor, Bowman Birk inhibitor from soybean and protein-type proteinase inhibitors from pea (Pisum sativum L.). The method was developed for the determination and characterization of the inhibitors, the enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin and the monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) raised against the inhibitors, and also the inhibitor-enzyme and inhibitor-mAb association complexes. The results from studies involving the use of various types of buffers revealed the advantages of having zwitterions such as trimethylammoniumpropyl sulphonate (AccuPure) or taurine included in the buffer. The use of capillaries dynamically coated with zwitterions efficiently reduced the interactions of the proteins with the silica capillary surface, which was important for the analyses for trypsin, chymotrypsin and mAbs and their association complexes with the inhibitors. The influence of temperature, voltage, pH and buffer type on migration times, resolution, peak areas and number of theoretical plates was investigated for the proteins studied. The proposed HPCE method is very suitable for studies of proteinase inhibitors compared with traditional inhibitor studies, and it gives efficient protein separations with the possibility of 245,000 plates/m.

Selection of monoclonal antibodies for immunoaffinity chromatography: model studies with antibodies against soy bean trypsin inhibitor.

To facilitate selection of monoclonal antibodies for immunoaffinity chromatography, an ELISA screening procedure was developed. The assay is based on the avidin-biotin system and provides a profile of the monoclonal antibody which is based on the binding characteristics of the antigen binding site when exposed to different elution reagents. The elution profiles of 5 monoclonal antibodies to soy bean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI) were determined and for 2 of the antibodies the results obtained in the ELISA were verified using column experiments. The affinity constants were determined for the same 5 monoclonal antibodies and no correlation was seen with the ease of elution. The elution profiles presented here are easily obtained and the results indicate that a general screening procedure for suitable combinations of antibodies and elution conditions can be carried out using an elution ELISA assay when modified as described herein.

ELISA analysis of soybean trypsin inhibitors in processed foods.

Soybean proteins are widely used in human foods in a variety of forms, including infant formulas, flour, protein concentrates, protein isolates, soy sauces, textured soy fibers, and tofu. The presence of inhibitors of digestive enzymes in soy proteins impairs the nutritional quality and possibly the safety of soybeans and other legumes. Processing, based on the use of heat or fractionation of protein isolates, does not completely inactivate or remove these inhibitors, so that residual amounts of inhibitors are consumed by animals and humans. New monoclonal antibody-based immunoassays can measure low levels of the soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI) and the Bowman-Birk trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor (BBI) and the Bowman-Birk foods. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to measure the inhibitor content of soy concentrates, isolates, and flours, both heated and unheated; a commercial soy infant formula; KTI and BBI with rearranged disulfide bonds; browning products derived from heat-treatment of KTI with glucose and starch; and KTI exposed to high pH. The results indicate that even low inhibitor isolates contain significant amounts of specific inhibitors. Thus, infants on soy formula consume about 10 mg of KTI plus BBI per day. The immunoassays complement the established enzymatic assays of trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, and have advantages in (a) measuring low levels of inhibitors in processed foods; and (b) differentiating between the Kunitz and Bowman-Birk inhibitors. The significance of our findings for food safety are discussed.

An acrosin inhibitor from boar seminal vesicle fluid immunologically related to the trypsin-kallikrein inhibitor (Kunitz).

A new acrosin inhibitor was isolated to apparent homogeneity from the fluid of boar seminal vesicles. The inhibitor is immunologically related to the polyvalent trypsin-kallikrein inhibitor from bovine lung known as aprotinin. A crude preparation of the acrosin inhibitor was prepared by immunoaffinity chromatography on anti-aprotinin antibodies bound to Sepharose 4B column. The inhibitor was further purified by affinity chromatography on trypsin immobilized on a Sepharose 4B column, by ion-exchange chromatography on CM-Sephadex C-25, and by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography on a C18 column. The relative molecular mass (Mr) of the inhibitor is about 7,000 as estimated from dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Its amino-acid composition was determined, the sequence of the first 8 amino-acid residues from the N-terminus is Thr-Arg-Asp-Phe-Pro-Pro-Asp-Gly-...

Detection of antigen immunologically related to basic pancreatic inhibitor (Kunitz) in porcine blood plasma by immunoaffinity chromatography.

Rabbit antiserum against trypsin-kallikrein inhibitor (TKI) was prepared. Purified immunoglobulin G (IgG) fraction was bound to Sepharose 4B. An antigen immunologically related to TKI was obtained from porcine blood plasma by adsorbing it onto the immunosorbent column. Its immunoreactivity with TKI antibodies was confirmed by immunoelectrophoresis. The antigen was an inhibitor of trypsin and acrosin.

Antigenicity of native and modified Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitors.

Food provides a continuous antigenic stimulus to the immune system and the antigenicity of processed food proteins should be considered in toxicological evaluations. The antigenicity of the Kunitz trypsin inhibitor was studied using antibodies prepared by inoculating rabbits with native, heat-denatured, and N-acetylcysteine-treated Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitors. Immunochemical studies using a competitive solid-phase enzyme immunoassay and two groups of sera revealed two patterns of antigenicity. Antibodies elicited with the denatured inhibitor were specific for the denatured conformation of the protein. In contrast, native inhibitor elicited antibodies that selectively recognized determinants in both native and heat-treated protein, but that did not bind trypsin inhibitors treated with N-acetylcysteine. These results imply that: the disulfide bonds must be intact to maintain the native antigenic conformation and the cysteine treatment may suppress allergic manifestations of soybean trypsin inhibitors and possibly other food proteins. These studies were extended by analyzing a panel of monoclonal antibodies prepared against native Kunitz trypsin inhibitor. The inhibitor has at least two distinct antigenic sites (epitopes), one of which is retained under denaturing conditions. The measurement of native Kunitz trypsin inhibitor in food samples by immunoassay appears practical. The relevance of these findings to food processing, food safety, and health is also discussed.

[Purification of soybean trypsin inhibitor by an immunosorption method]. / Ochistka soevogo ingibitora tripsina metodom immunosorbtsii.

A technique for isolation of the trypsin inhibitor from soya beans (Kunitz inhibitor) was developed with affinity chromatography as a main step, the immobilized antibodies of the inhibitor being used as a sorbent. The inhibitor obtained was homogeneous according to the data of electrophoresis in PAAG and had the specific activity equal to that of an inhibitor preparation obtained by affinity chromatography on trypsin-sepharose.

Effect of some chemical modifications of basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) on its reaction with specific antibody.

Anti-BPTI-antibody inactivated the antitrypsin activity of basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor. Esterification of BPTI with methanol did not affect its antitrypsin activity and precipitate formation with antibody. Acetylation, maleylation and hexa-S-carboxylation of BPTI completely inactivated the inhibitor reactivity and markedly diminished its precipitating ability. Performic acid oxidized BPTI and thermolysin digested BPTI lost its antitrypsin as well as antigenic activities. The both preparations as well as oxidized N-acetyl-L-cysteinyl-L-lysyl-L-alanylglycylglycyl-L-cysteine amide did not affect the complex formation between the inhibitor and antibody.