Impact of climatic conditions on radial growth of non-native Cedrus libani compared to native conifers in Central Europe.

Ongoing climate change increasingly affects growth conditions of native conifers such as Picea abies (Norway spruce) and Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine) in Central Europe. These conifers are primarily cultivated for wood production. To obtain ecologically and economically stable forests, forestry seeks alternative species that might be less prone to novel climatic conditions, such as Cedrus libani (Lebanon cedar). We aim at investigating growth responses to climatic factors of C. libani compared to native P. abies and P. sylvestris in Central Europe for 25 years (1994-2019). Growth responses were used as a proxy for tolerance towards climatic stress events, such as heat and drought. Height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and radial increment were measured for 40-year-old tree stands of C. libani and native conifers. Radial growth responses to selected climate parameters were analysed using bootstrapped correlations with detrended growth index chronologies and growth response indices for drought years (2003, 2012, 2015, 2018). For C. libani, radial growth was positively correlated with high water availability in late winter and spring, while for P. abies, February and summer and for P. sylvestris, July showed such a relationship. Cedrus libani exhibited the highest resistance, recovery, and resilience in response to climatic extremes. Against the background of climate change, C. libani could serve as an alternative conifer species to establish climate-resistant viable forests in Central Europe.

Investigation of the flavan-3-ol patterns in willow species during one growing-season.

Flavonoids, proanthocyanidins (PAs) and salicylic alcohol derivatives are the main groups of ingredients in Salix needed as defensive tools and signal molecules, but have also pharmaceutical importance. The present study investigated total PA content, complete PA pattern, the oligomeric/total PAs quotient and the contents of catechin and epicatechin during one growing-season for the leaves and this year's sprouts in ten willows (Salix pentandra L. ♂, S. alba L. ♂, S. fragilis L. ♀, S. caprea L. ♂ & ♀, S. cinerea L. ♂, S. caprea x cinerea ♂, S. daphnoidesVill. ♂ & ♀ and S. purpurea L. ♀; all Salicaceae). Comparison of the different species revealed distinct seasonal fluctuations of the oligomeric and polymeric PA fractions, but the contents of both groups always developed in the same direction. All willows prefer the synthesis of PAs with DP-2 - DP-4 within the oligomeric fraction (DP-2 - DP-10) and species with rather low PA contents like S. purpurea (0.1-2.6 mg/g) as well as species with rather high PA contents like S. alba (3.8-14.7 mg/g) were found. Only slight gender specific differences could be observed for both sexes of S. daphnoides and S. caprea. The PA pattern of the hybrid S. caprea x cinerea seems to be influenced by both parents. Thus, the accumulation of the oligomeric PAs accorded to S. caprea and the polymeric PAs matched S. cinerea resulting in an overall depression of PAs in the sprouts and a varying seasonal trend in the leaves. In contrast, the content of catechin remained high and seemed to be not influenced in the hybrid. Although only one individual of each Salix species could be considered in this screening study, the present results demonstrate the variability of the flavan-3-ol pattern within the genus Salix but also some preliminary correlations could be observed. Future studies with more Salix species will provide more insights into chemotaxonomic correlations.

Floral reward, advertisement and attractiveness to honey bees in dioecious Salix caprea.

In dioecious, zoophilous plants potential pollinators have to be attracted to both sexes and switch between individuals of both sexes for pollination to occur. It often has been suggested that males and females require different numbers of visits for maximum reproductive success because male fertility is more likely limited by access to mates, whereas female fertility is rather limited by resource availability. According to sexual selection theory, males therefore should invest more in pollinator attraction (advertisement, reward) than females. However, our knowledge on the sex specific investment in floral rewards and advertisement, and its effects on pollinator behaviour is limited. Here, we use an approach that includes chemical, spectrophotometric, and behavioural studies i) to elucidate differences in floral nectar reward and advertisement (visual, olfactory cues) in dioecious sallow, Salix caprea, ii) to determine the relative importance of visual and olfactory floral cues in attracting honey bee pollinators, and iii) to test for differential attractiveness of female and male inflorescence cues to honey bees. Nectar amount and sugar concentration are comparable, but sugar composition varies between the sexes. Olfactory sallow cues are more attractive to honey bees than visual cues; however, a combination of both cues elicits the strongest behavioural responses in bees. Male flowers are due to the yellow pollen more colourful and emit a higher amount of scent than females. Honey bees prefer the visual but not the olfactory display of males over those of females. In all, the data of our multifaceted study are consistent with the sexual selection theory and provide novel insights on how the model organism honey bee uses visual and olfactory floral cues for locating host plants.

Inter- and intraspecific variation in floral scent in the genus salix and its implication for pollination.

The floral scent composition of 32 European and two Asian Salix L. species (Salicaceae) was analyzed. Intra- and interspecific variation was compared for a subset of 8 species. All Salix species are dioecious and floral scent was collected from both male and female individuals by using a dynamic headspace MicroSPE method, and analyzed by GC-MS. A total of 48 compounds were detected, most of them being isoprenoids and benzenoids. Commonly occurring compounds included trans-beta-ocimene, cis-beta-ocimene, benzaldehyde, D-limonene, alpha-pinene, cis-3-hexenyl aceatate, linalool, 1,4-dimethoxybenzene, and beta-pinene. Two compounds, 1,4-dimethoxybenzene and trans-beta-ocimene, were responsible for most of the interspecific variation. In a subset of eight extensively sampled species, six had a characteristic floral scent composition; half of the pairwise species comparisons confirmed significant differences. In three of these eight species, intraspecific variability could be explained by sex differences. Variation in Salix floral scent may provide specific signals that guide pollinators and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of compatible and cooccurring species.

1,4-Dimethoxybenzene, a floral scent compound in willows that attracts an oligolectic bee.

Many bees are oligolectic and collect pollen for their larvae only from one particular plant family or genus. Here, we identified flower scent compounds of two Salix species important for the attraction of the oligolectic bee Andrena vaga, which collects pollen only from Salix. Flower scent was collected by using dynamic-headspace methods from Salix caprea and S. atrocinerea, and the samples were subsequently analyzed by coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) to detect possible attractants of A. vaga. EAD active compounds were identified by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Both Salix species had relatively similar scent profiles, and the antennae of male and female bees responded to at least 16 compounds, among them different benzenoids as well as oxygenated monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids. The strongest antennal responses were triggered by 1,4-dimethoxybenzene, and in field bioassays, this benzenoid attracted females of A. vaga at the beginning of its flight period, but not at the end.