The symptom and genetic diversity of cassava brown streak viruses infecting cassava in East Africa.

The genetic and symptom diversity of six virus isolates causing cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) in the endemic (Kenya, Mozambique, and Tanzania) and the recently affected epidemic areas (Uganda) of eastern Africa was studied. Five cassava varieties; Albert, Colombian, Ebwanateraka, TMS60444 (all susceptible) and Kiroba (tolerant) were graft inoculated with each isolate. Based on a number of parameters including the severity of leaf and root symptoms, and the extent of virus transmission by grafting, the viruses were classified as either severe or relatively mild. These results were further confirmed by the mechanical inoculation of 13 herbaceous hosts in which the virulent isolates caused plant death in Nicotiana clevelandii and N. benthamiana whereas the milder isolates did not. Phylogenetic analysis of complete coat protein gene sequences of these isolates together with sequences obtained from 14 other field-collected samples from Kenya and Zanzibar, and reference sequences grouped them into two distinct clusters, representing the two species of cassava brown streak viruses. Put together, these results did not suggest the association of a hypervirulent form of the virus with the current CBSD epidemic in Uganda. Identification of the severe and milder isolates, however, has further implications for disease management and quarantine requirements.

Multiplex RT-PCR assays for the simultaneous detection of both RNA and DNA viruses infecting cassava and the common occurrence of mixed infections by two cassava brown streak viruses in East Africa.

Uniplex and multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) protocols were developed for the detection of cassava brown streak viruses (CBSVs) in single and mixed infections with cassava mosaic begomoviruses (CMBs) in a tropical crop plant, cassava (Manihot esculenta). CMBs contain ssDNA as their genome (genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae) while CBSVs are made up of positive sense ssRNA (genus Ipomovirus, family Potyviridae), and they cause the economically important cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases, respectively, in sub-Saharan Africa. Diagnostic methodologies have long been available for CMBs but they are limited for CBSVs especially in mixed infections. In this study, the two CBSVs, Cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) and Cassava brown streak Uganda virus (CBSUV) occurring singly or in mixed infection with CMBs, African cassava mosaic virus and East African cassava mosaic virus were detected in a single RT-PCR using both previously described and newly designed virus-specific primers. These protocols were highly efficient for detecting CBSVs compared to the existing methods and have great potential to minimize sample handling and contamination. As well as improving the diagnosis of cassava viruses, the development of multiplex RT-PCR protocols have revealed the common occurrence of mixed infections by CBSV and CBSUV in cassava fields of Tanzania and Kenya, which was contrary to the common belief until recently that these two viruses have existed separately. These protocols have implications for diagnosis and epidemiological studies on cassava virus diseases in Eastern Africa.

Evolution of cassava brown streak disease-associated viruses.

Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) has occurred in the Indian Ocean coastal lowlands and some areas of Malawi in East Africa for decades, and makes the storage roots of cassava unsuitable for consumption. CBSD is associated with Cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) and the recently described Ugandan cassava brown streak virus (UCBSV) [picorna-like (+)ssRNA viruses; genus Ipomovirus; family Potyviridae]. This study reports the first comprehensive analysis on how evolution is shaping the populations of CBSV and UCBSV. The complete genomes of CBSV and UCBSV (four and eight isolates, respectively) were 69.0-70.3 and 73.6-74.4% identical at the nucleotide and polyprotein amino acid sequence levels, respectively. They contained predictable sites of homologous recombination, mostly in the 3'-proximal part (NIb-HAM1h-CP-3'-UTR) of the genome, but no evidence of recombination between the two viruses was found. The CP-encoding sequences of 22 and 45 isolates of CBSV and UCBSV analysed, respectively, were mainly under purifying selection; however, several sites in the central part of CBSV CP were subjected to positive selection. HAM1h (putative nucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphatase) was the least similar protein between CBSV and UCBSV (aa identity approx. 55%). Both termini of HAM1h contained sites under positive selection in UCBSV. The data imply an on-going but somewhat different evolution of CBSV and UCBSV, which is congruent with the recent widespread outbreak of UCBSV in cassava crops in the highland areas (>1000 m above sea level) of East Africa where CBSD has not caused significant problems in the past.

Optimization of diagnostic RT-PCR protocols and sampling procedures for the reliable and cost-effective detection of Cassava brown streak virus.

Sampling procedures and diagnostic protocols were optimized for accurate diagnosis of Cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) (genus Ipomovirus, family Potyviridae). A cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) method was optimized for sample preparation from infected cassava plants and compared with the RNeasy plant mini kit (Qiagen) for sensitivity, reproducibility and costs. CBSV was detectable readily in total RNAs extracted using either method. The major difference between the two methods was in the cost of consumables, with the CTAB 10x cheaper (0.53 pounds sterling=US$0.80 per sample) than the RNeasy method (5.91 pounds sterling=US$8.86 per sample). A two-step RT-PCR (1.34 pounds sterling=US$2.01 per sample), although less sensitive, was at least 3-times cheaper than a one-step RT-PCR (4.48 pounds sterling=US$6.72). The two RT-PCR tests revealed consistently the presence of CBSV both in symptomatic and asymptomatic leaves and indicated that asymptomatic leaves can be used reliably for virus diagnosis. Depending on the accuracy required, sampling 100-400 plants per field is an appropriate recommendation for CBSD diagnosis, giving a 99.9% probability of detecting a disease incidence of 6.7-1.7%, respectively. CBSV was detected at 10(-4)-fold dilutions in composite sampling, indicating that the most efficient way to index many samples for CBSV will be to screen pooled samples. The diagnostic protocols described below are reliable and the most cost-effective methods available currently for detecting CBSV.