Role of Silver Nanoparticles for the Control of Anthelmintic Resistance in Small and Large Ruminants.

Helminths are considered a significant threat to the livestock industry, as they cause substantial economic losses in small and large ruminant farming. Their morbidity and mortality rates are also increasing day by day as they have zoonotic importance. Anthelmintic drugs have been used for controlling these parasites; unfortunately, due to the development of resistance of these drugs in helminths (parasites), especially in three major classes like benzimidazoles, nicotinic agonists, and macrocyclic lactones, their use is becoming very low. Although new anthelmintics are being developed, the process is time-consuming and costly. As a result, nanoparticles are being explored as an alternative to anthelmintics. Nanoparticles enhance drug effectiveness, drug delivery, and target specificity and have no resistance against parasites. Different types of nanoparticles are used, such as organic (chitosan) and inorganic (gold, silver, zinc oxide, iron oxide, and nickel oxide). One of them, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), has unique properties in various fields, especially parasitology. AgNPs are synthesized from three primary methods: physical, chemical, and biological. Their primary mechanism of action is causing stress through the production of ROS that destroys cells, organs, proteins, and DNA parasites. The present review is about AgNPs, their mode of action, and their role in controlling anthelmintic resistance against small and large ruminants.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Significant Role in Poultry and Novel Toxicological Mechanisms.

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have involved a lot of consideration owing to their distinctive features. The ZnO NPs can be described as particularly synthesized mineral salts via nanotechnology, varying in size from 1 to 100 nm, while zinc oxide (ZnO), it is an inorganic substrate of zinc (Zn). The Zn is a critical trace element necessary for various biological and physiological processes in the body. Studies have revealed ZnO NPs' efficient immuno-modulatory, growth-promoting, and antimicrobial properties in poultry birds. They offer increased bioavailability as compared to their traditional sources, producing better results in terms of productivity and welfare and consequently reducing ecological harm in the poultry sector. However, they have also been reported for their toxicological effects, which are size, shape, concentration, and exposure route dependent. The investigations done so far have yielded inconsistent results, therefore, a lot of additional studies and research are required to clarify the harmful consequences of ZnO NPs and to bring them to a logical end. This review explores an overview of efficient possible role of ZnO NPs, while comparing them with other nutritional Zn sources, in the poultry industry, primarily as dietary supplements that effect the growth, health, and performance of the birds. In addition to the anti-bacterial mechanisms of ZnO NPs and their promising role as antifungal, and anti-colloidal agent, this paper also covers the toxicological mechanisms of ZnO NPs and their consequent toxicological hazards to vital organs and the reproductive system of poultry birds.

Novel insights regarding the safety and efficacy of pyrethroid-coated nanoparticles against Hyalomma ticks.

Nanoparticles have been shown to inhibit major life cycle stages of ticks, indicative of the promising application of nanomaterials against hard ticks. The study thus probed into one of the alternative options to curtail Hyalomma by employing nanocomposites consisting of pyrethroids (cypermethrin and deltamethrin) coated nanoparticles of iron oxides and iron sulfides keeping alongside the evaluation of their toxicity through plant and mammalian cell lines. The nanoparticles used in this study were roughly spherical in morphology and exhibited various size dimensions upon characterization using SEM, EDX, and FTIR. The application of nanomaterials on female ovipositioning tick showed a decline up to 15% (females ovipositioned) in deltamethrin-coated FeO NPs, whereas this decline was up to 18% in Cyp-FeS NPs and up to 5% in Cyp-FeO NPs. Similarly, the larval hatching was also impacted, leading to a hatching percentage of 5% and only 1% by application of Cyp-FeS NPs and Cyp-FeO NPs, respectively. Similarly, the larval groups had LC90 of 4.1 and 4.73 mg/L for the Cyp-FeO NPs and Cyp-FeS NPs groups. The delta-FeO NPs and delta-FeS NPs demonstrated a promising effect against adult ticks, showing LC50= 3.5 mg/L, LC90= 6.7 mg/L and LC50= 3.8 mg/L, LC90= 7.9 mg/L, respectively. MTT assay revealed that the pyrethroids coupled with iron oxide nanoparticles showed the least cytotoxicity even at the highest concentration (10-1 µL) among other nanomaterials. The study thus concluded a safer spectrum of non-target effects of pyrethroids-coated nanomaterials in addition to their significant anti-tick activity.

Unraveling the combined deleterious effects of ochratoxin A and atrazine upon broiler's health: Toxicopathological, serum biochemical and immunological perspectives.

Atrazine, a herbicide, is used for eradication of broad-leaved herbs in corn crop; and ochratoxins, particularly ochratoxin A (OTA), are major pollutants of poultry diet. Existence of both of these hazardous chemicals as residues is obvious as elucidated by various epidemiological findings. The present study was designed to investigate toxicopathological, serum biochemical and immunological alterations incurred by atrazine alone and/or, in combination with OTA in broilers. For this purpose, one-day old broiler chicks (n = 180) were purchased from a local hatching unit and were fed two levels of atrazine (50 and 150 mg/kg) and one level of OTA (100 µg/kg) in different combinations. Results of this experiment showed a significant reduction in feed intake, body weight gain, relative organ weights, serum total protein, albumin and globulin while there was a significant increase in urea and creatinine levels, decreased antibody response to sheep red blood cells, reduced lymphoproliferative response and phagocytic capacity in groups given OTA and atrazine individually in feed and these effects became more pronounced when atrazine was given in combination with OTA suggesting synergistic effects of both toxicants for each other.

Application of Cypermethrin-Coated ZnS and ZnO Nanoparticles against Rhipicephalus Ticks.

Rhipicephalus ticks are described as important ticks impacting the costs of livestock rearing and by-products sale. The prevalence and response of ticks towards cypermethrin sprays indicate the need to implement the rational use of acaricides. In our previous studies, ZnO nanoparticles were shown to inhibit the major life-cycle stages of Hyalomma ticks, indicative of promising application of nanomaterials against the hard ticks. The current study was designed to probe into one of alternative options to curtail Rhipicephalus ticks by employing cypermethrin-coated nanoparticles of ZnO (C-ZnO NPs) and ZnS (C-ZnS NPs). The nanocomposites showed a roughly spherical type of morphology and various size dimensions upon characterization using SEM and EDX. Female ovipositioning was declined up to only 48% in ZnS and up to 32% in ZnO NPs even after 28 days in vitro. Similarly, the larval hatching was also impacted, leading to a hatching percentage of 21% and 15% by application of C-ZnS NPs and C-ZnO NPs, respectively. The LC90 in female adult groups were 3.94 mg/L and 4.27 mg/L for the C-ZnO NPs and C-ZnS NPs groups, respectively. Similarly, the larval groups had LC90 of 8.63 and 8.95 mg/L for the C-ZnO NPs and C-ZnS NPs groups. The study is a proof of the concept for incorporating effective and safe nanocomposites as acaricides. The studies on the efficacy and spectrum of non-target effects of nanomaterial-based acaricides can further refine the research on finding novel alternatives for tick control.

Toxocara canis seropositivity in different exposure groups in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Northwest Pakistan.

Human toxocariasis is a highly prevalent zoonosis worldwide but is underreported in most countries. This study was conducted to evaluate Toxocara canis seropositivity in different exposure sub-groups located in the Mardan, Swabi, and Nowshera districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Northwest Pakistan. A total of 400 blood samples were collected from males 15 years of age and older with no animals, with livestock, with dogs and/or cats living in the house, and from butchers and veterinarians or para-veterinarians. Serum was tested using a commercial ELISA kit for detection of IgG antibodies against T. canis. Proportion seropositive was presented for each group and differences between groups were evaluated using the chi-square or Fisher's exact test as appropriate. Possible risk factors obtained through administration of a questionnaire were also evaluated for each sub-population. Overall T. canis seroprevalence was 14.2%, with a significant difference found between the seroprevalence of individuals with no animals (5.0%; 5/100), individuals with dogs and/or cats living in the household (8.0%; 8/100), individuals with livestock (18.0%; 18/100), veterinarians or para-veterinarians (24.0%; 12/50), and butchers (28.0%; 14/50) (p < 0.001). Significant differences in seropositivity by income bracket, education level, and working in the fields were found for some sub-groups. Study findings demonstrate that certain sub-populations, in Northwest Pakistan, may be at greater risk of T. canis infection. Development and implementation of targeted preventive strategies may, therefore, be needed.

Distribution pattern of Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever in Asia and the Middle East.

Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) is one of the most important vector-borne diseases of zoonotic potential that can be acquired following the bite of the Hyalomma species of ticks. It is a highly prevalent disease in Asia and the Middle East. The risk factors of this disease are contact with infected tissue, blood, patient, or livestock in the acute viremic phase, infected tick bites, or the manual removal of ticks. The disease is clinically described as progressive hemorrhages, fever, and pain in musculature. Biochemical tests reveal elevated levels of creatinine phosphokinase, alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase. Clotting time is prolonged in pro-thrombin tests, and pathogenesis is mostly related to the disruption of the epithelium during viral replication and indirectly by secreting cytotoxic molecules. These molecules cause endothelial activation and result in the loss of function. Supportive therapy is given through blood or plasma infusions to treat or manage the patients. According to the most advanced studies, CCHF can be treated by Ribavirin, which is an antiviral drug that shows excellent results in preventing the disease. Health-care staff are more prone to infection. The hemorrhagic phase represents a high risk for accidental exposures. This literature review presents a comprehensive overview of the viral epidemiology, zoonotic perspectives, and significant risk factors of CCHF in various Middle East and Asian countries. Furthermore, the pathophysiology and preventive strategies of CCHF have also been discussed as well as legislation and policies regarding public outreach programs, research, and development aimed at infection prevention and control that are required at a global level.

Molecular evidence of Ehrlichia canis, associated risk factors and hematobiochemical analysis in client owned and shelter cats of Pakistan.

Ehrlichiosis is an infectious disease caused by Ehrlichia canis (E. canis) genus and arthropod vectors. It is considered endemic in many parts of the world among dogs. But due to lack of research on cats, there isn't enough information available. The limited reports available on feline Ehrlichiosis relied on the detection of morulae in leukocytes. The current study was designed to detect the molecular prevalence of E. canis in cats along with associated risk factors and hematological analysis. A total of 384 blood samples from cats were collected from various veterinary hospitals and shelter homes and tested by microscopy and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) to identify E. canis. The prevalence of E. canis has been reported at 5/384 (1.30%) and (14/384) 3.65% in cats through microscopy and PCR respectively. DNA sequences revealed significant resemblance with each other and variable resemblance with other Ehrlichia spp. sequences of different species from various countries already deposited on NCBI. Moreover, hematobiochemical and risk factor analysis were also carried out revealing significant results. This study reports first molecular detection of E. canis in client-owned and sheltered cats located in District Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. Further studies should be conducted to identify its occurrence in the feline population of Pakistan so that control and prevention strategies must be planned accordingly. Due to the zoonotic impact of this pathogen and in perspective of one health, endemic regions of the disease should be identified and possible control measures should be implemented in these regions to minimize the spread of disease to non-endemic regions of the world and from animals to humans.

Molecular evidence of toxoplasmosis in people living with HIV in Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotically important parasite infecting almost all vertebrates. The parasite can easily infect humans through the fecal-oral route, particularly immunocompromised individuals, and children. Due to lack of epidemiological data regarding the occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in people living with HIV in Pakistan, the present study was designed to estimate the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in people living with HIV. METHODS: Briefly, 384 blood samples were randomly collected from people living with HIV registered under Punjab AIDS Control Program. DNA of all samples was extracted and the 18S rRNA gene of T. gondii was amplified through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) by using genus-specific primers. The amplicons were spread on 1.5% agar rose gel and visualized under gel documentation system. Then the amplicons were purified from the gel and subjected to sequence and phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: Overall prevalence of T. gondii was observed as 23.96%. The prevalence of T. gondii was significantly (p <0.05) higher in females and in middle age group (26-40 years). Similarly, the prevalence was significantly (p <0.05) higher in people with poor socioeconomic status, symptomatic patients, drugs users and people using unfiltered water for drinking. Furthermore, bodyweight (46-70 kg) and dry seasons also significantly (p <0.05) affected the prevalence of T. gondii. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings illustrated a high infection rate of toxoplasmosis in people living with HIV which could be a significant cause of mortality. More studies need to be conducted for other opportunistic infections caused by parasites and other pathogens.

Use of nanoparticles, a modern means of drug delivery, against cryptosporidiosis.

Cryptosporidium is a primary cause of waterborne epidemics, despite being previously considered only an opportunistic pathogen. The disease is associated with significant economic losses in humans and animals that are brought on by diarrhea, which frequently causes dehydration. Contact with diseased people or animals, as well as polluted water, is the major cause of infection. Different drugs are used to control the parasites. Nitazoxanide (NTZ), which is an anti-protozoan and anti-viral drug, can be used to control helminths, viruses, and protozoan parasites as a broad-spectrum antibiotic and has been approved by the food and drug authority (FDA). However, the problem is the development of resistance over a period of time in these parasites. Nanoparticles have received significant attention as possible anti-parasitic agents in recent years. By directing medications to specific cellular locations, targeted drug delivery minimizes the side effects of medications. Nanoparticles have demonstrated effectiveness against different Cryptosporidium species. Nanoparticles loaded with NTZ are found to be an effective remedy for C. parvum in young ones and decrease the oocyst count shed in the stools. Additionally, silver nanoparticles have proven to be effective against C. parvum by releasing silver ions that breach the cell wall of the oocyst, causing the escape of intracellular contents and the destruction of sporozoites within the oocyst. Implementing tiny particles for the purification of consuming water from Cryptosporidium is an economical and environmentally sustainable process. However, the use of nanoparticles in medicine requires more research.

Moringa oleifera alleviated oxidative stress, physiological and molecular disruption induced by acute thermal stress in grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella.

The present study was designed to investigate the protective effect of dietary Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MLM) supplementation against high temperature-induced stress in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). A total of 180 apparent healthy juvenile grass carp (15.48 g ± 0.054) were divided into three groups in triplicate (20 fish in each replicate). Fish were fed with diets containing 0, 1, and 5% MLM for 60 days and then subjected to a high-temperature challenge for 48 h (32-33 °C). The results revealed that feeding fish with 1 and 5% MLM resulted in a significant increase in weight gain and specific growth rate compared to the control. In addition, feed conversion ratio was significantly reduced in groups fed with MLM. No significant difference was reported in the serum cortisol level among different experimental groups before heat stress while serum glucose level significantly decreased in fish fed with 5% MLM. Serum alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, and alkaline phosphatase significantly decreased in fish fed with 1 and 5% MLM before and after heat stress. Hepatic lipid peroxidation significantly decreased in fish fed with MLM for 60 days. A non-significant increase in hepatic reduced glutathione level was reported in fish fed with 1 and 5% MLM before heat stress. Catalase and superoxide dismutase activities increased significantly in the liver of fish fed with 5% MLM. No significant change was observed in the expression profile of heat shock protein (hsp) 70 and 90 before heat stress. Meanwhile, after heat stress, up to a fivefold increase was recorded in mRNA level of hsp 70 and fourfold increase in the expression level of hsp 90 in the liver of the control fish which were not fed with MLM-supplemented diets. Fish fed with 1 and 5% MLM showed a significant decrease in the expression of hsp 70 and a non-significant decrease in the expression of hsp 90. Results of the present study suggest that supplementing the diet of grass carp with 5% MLM could improve growth and physiological performance and provide resistance against high temperature-induced stress.

Role of Bacteriophages for Optimized Health and Production of Poultry.

The poultry sector is facing infections from Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria and Staphylococcus spp., and Escherichia coli, that have developed multidrug resistance aptitude. Antibiotics cause disturbances in the balance of normal microbiota leading to dysbiosis, immunosuppression, and the development of secondary infections. Bacteriophages have been reported to lower the colonization of Salmonella and Campylobacter in poultry. The specificity of bacteriophages is greater than that of antibiotics and can be used as a cocktail for enhanced antibacterial activity. Specie-specific phages have been prepared, e.g., Staphylophage (used against Staphylococcus bacteria) that specifically eliminate bacterial pathogens. Bacteriophage products, e.g., BacWashTM and Ecolicide PX have been developed as antiseptics and disinfectants for effective biosecurity and biosafety measures. The success of phage therapy is influenced by time to use, the amount used, the delivery mechanism, and combination therapy with other therapeutics. It is a need of time to build a comprehensive understanding of the use of bacteriophages in poultry production. The current review thus focuses on mechanisms of bacteriophages against poultry pathogens, their applications in various therapeutics, impacts on the economy, and current challenges.

A new insight in immunomodulatory impact of botanicals in treating avian coccidiosis.

Avian coccidiosis is caused by genus Eimeria (E.) i.e. E. maxima, E. necatrix, E. tenella, E. acervulina, E. brunette and E. mitis and lead to three billion US dollar per year economic loss in poultry industry and reduces the growth performance of birds. To purge undesirable foreign agents, immune system produces a variety of molecules and cells that ultimately neutralize target particles in healthy organisms. However; when this particular system compromises, infection develops and the load of pathogens along with their virulence factors overcome both; innate and adaptive immune systems. Livestock and poultry sectors are important part of agriculture industry worldwide. Due to excessive use of chemotherapeutic agents, pathogens have developed resistance against these agents leading to the great economic losses. Numerous therapeutic approaches are in routine process for the treatment and prevention of various ailments but irrational use of antibiotics/chemicals has raised alarming concerns, like the development of drug resistant strains, residual effects in ultimate users and environmental pollution. These problems have led to the development of alternatives. In this regard, anticoccidial vaccine can be used as an alternative but due to high cost of production, plant derived biological response modifiers and antioxidants compounds are considered as a promising alternative. This review summarizes the immunotherapeutic effects of different compounds particularly with reference to avian coccidiosis.

Resistance to Cypermethrin Is Widespread in Cattle Ticks (Rhipicephalus microplus) in the Province of Punjab, Pakistan: In Vitro Diagnosis of Acaricide Resistance.

Control of the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (R.) microplus mainly relies on chemical acaricides and cypermethrin is the most widely used acaricide in Pakistan. Farmers frequently complain about its low efficacy, thus, the present study was designed to quantify the frequency of cypermethrin resistance in cattle ticks. Engorged female R. microplus were collected and tested for the efficacy of cypermethrin using the FAO-recommended larval packet test. Resistance factors (RF) were estimated at both the lethal concentration for 50% (LC50) and 99% (LC99) of ticks. Thirty-three samples were tested, of which 8/33 (24.24%) were classified as resistant based on the RF50, and all 33 were classified as resistant based on the RF99. In District Sargodha, when only the RF50 was considered, 45.5% of samples were classified as resistant, but at RF99, all tested samples were identified as resistant. In District Okara, the variation in RF50 estimates was 2.2-8.3 and variation in RF99 estimates was 10.6-1139.8. Similar results were found in District Attock, where variations in RF50 were 0.8-8.5 and RF99 ranged from 9-237.3. The study showed that cypermethrin resistance is prevalent in these three districts of Pakistan and is likely to be overestimated by classification based on the RF99.

Vaccines against chicken coccidiosis with particular reference to previous decade: progress, challenges, and opportunities.

Chicken coccidiosis is an economically significant disease of commercial chicken industry accounting for losses of more than £10.4 billion (according to 2016 prices). Additionally, the costs incurred in prophylaxis and therapeutics against chicken coccidiosis in developing countries (for instance Pakistan according to 2018 prices) reached US $45,000.00 while production losses for various categories of chicken ranges 104.74 to US $2,750,779.00. The infection has been reported from all types of commercial chickens (broiler, layer, breeder) having a range of reported prevalence of 7-90%. The concern of resistance towards major anticoccidials has provided a way forward to vaccine research and development. For prophylaxis of chicken coccidiosis, live virulent, attenuated, ionophore tolerant strains and recombinant vaccines have been extensively trialed and commercialized. Eimeria antigens and novel vaccine adjuvants have elicited the protective efficacy against coccidial challenge. The cost of production and achieving robust immune responses in birds are major challenges for commercial vaccine production. In the future, research should be focused on the development of multivalent anticoccidial vaccines for commercial poultry. Efforts should also be made on the discovery of novel antigens for incorporation into vaccine designs which might be more effective against multiple Eimeria species. This review presents a recap to the overall progress against chicken Eimeria with particular reference to previous decade. The article presents critical analysis of potential areas for future research in chicken Eimeria vaccine development.

Acaricidal Potential and Ecotoxicity of Metallic Nano-Pesticides Used against the Major Life Stages of Hyalomma Ticks.

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) are blood-feeding parasites capable of transmitting diseases to animals (Piroplasmosis) and humans (Congo fever, Lyme disease). The non-judicious use of chemical acaricides has led to the development of acaricide-resistant ticks, making the control of ticks and tick-borne diseases difficult. This study reports the efficacy of magnesium oxide (MgO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) as alternatives to traditional acaricides/pesticides using in vitro tests against major representative stages of Hyalomma ticks. Nanopesticides were chemically synthesized as rods (Fe2O3), stars (ZnO), and spheres (MgO) and were characterized by XRD and SEM analysis. The in vitro bioassays included adult immersion, larval immersion, and larval packet tests. Non-target effects of the nanopesticides were evaluated using snails. The LC90 values of Fe2O3 NPs (4.21, 2.83, 0.89 mg/L) were lowest followed by MgO (4.27, 2.91, 0.93 mg/L) and ZnO (4.49, 3.05, 0.69 mg/L), for the tick adult, larval and egg stages, respectively. Fe2O3 NPs were capable of arresting oviposition and larval hatching in the study ticks in vitro. The snail toxicity experiments revealed minimum to mild off-target effects for all nanopesticides tested. This study is the first to report the comparative efficacy of magnesium, iron, and zinc nanomaterials for toxicity in egg, adult and larval stages of Hyalomma ticks. Further studies of NPs on establishing the efficacy against ticks and safety at host-human-environment interface could lead to promising nanopesticde applications.

Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia in Different Water Bodies, Soil, and Vegetables in Pakistan.

There is a dearth of knowledge regarding transmission of Cryptosporidium (C) and Giardia (G) species through water and water-related sources in Pakistan. To this end, we conducted a study to evaluate the prevalence of these parasites in different water bodies, soil, and mixed raw vegetables in Pakistan. Researchers collected 200 samples from each reservoir including municipal water, sewage water, canal water, raw vegetables, soil of public parks, and soil of grazing areas. Researchers amplified the 18S ribosomal RNA gene of parasites using newly designed genus-specific primers through polymerase chain reaction testing. The sequencing analysis revealed that the obtained sequences belonged to C parvum and G lamblia. Phylogenetic clustering and sequence analysis of C parvum showed that the C parvum Pak1 (OM540369) and C parvum Pak2 (OM540370) as well as C parvum Pak3 (OM510450) and C parvum Pak6 (OM510445) were closely similar to each other. In the case of G lamblia, all the sequences appeared in the same clade. The epidemiological data showed lower prevalence of C parvum (11.5%) in all reservoirs, compared with G lamblia (20.5%). Among different reservoirs, prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia was observed in sewage water (C = 13%, G = 26.5%), municipal water (C = 10%, G = 35%), canal water (C = 9.5%, G = 18.5%), raw vegetables (C = 5.5%, G = 8%), soil of public parks (C = 13%, G = 14%), and soil of grazing areas (C = 18.5%, G = 21.5%). Among targeted risk factors, poor hygienic conditions significantly affected the prevalence of parasites in sewage water (C = 20%, G = 41.2%), municipal water (C = 14.7%, G = 48.8.5%), raw vegetables (C = 11.3%, G = 15.1%), and soil of public parks (C = 19.5%, G = 21.9%). Similarly, contamination with sewage waste significantly affected (P < .05) the prevalence of these parasites in municipal water (C = 13.6%, G = 41.1%), canal water (C = 13.3%, G = 25%), raw vegetables (C = 12.1%, G = 15.1%), and soil of public parks (C = 23.3%, G = 15%). Results of this study illustrated a high risk of parasitic zoonosis through water bodies, soil, and vegetables.

Insights into Nanopesticides for Ticks: The Superbugs of Livestock.

Livestock is an integral part of agriculture countries where ticks play significant role as potent pests causing considerable losses to economy and health. Drug resistance has made these pests supersede conventional therapies and control programs Nanotechnology here comes as an advancing and significant candidate alternatively able to reverse drug resistance. Nanoparticles, hence, against ticks may better be considered as nanopesticides that act in ways other than conventional drug efficacies. The methods of nanoparticles production include green synthesis, chemical synthesis, and arthropod-based synthesis. Pros and cons of these nanopesticides are by no means neglectable. Studies are fewer than needed to comprehensively discuss nanopesticides. Current review thus systematically covers aspects of ticks as livestock pests, their drug resistance, advent of nanotechnology against pests, their production methodologies, mechanisms of actions of ticks, and current limitations. This review opens several avenues for further research on nanoparticles as nanopesticides against ticks.