Knowledge, Attitudes, and Risk Perception of Broiler Grow-Out Farmers on Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in Oyo State, Nigeria.

Assessing knowledge, attitudes, and risk perception of Nigerian broiler grow-out farmers (n = 152) to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) with a five sectional purposive-structured-questionnaire: demographics; knowledge; attitudes; risk-perception; and response to regulation of antimicrobial practices. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test, and binary logistic regression. Respondents' knowledge score, in total, was lower than average, with all (100%) respondents having the understanding that antibiotics kill/reduce bacteria, most participants (>73%) believing that feeding antibiotics to broiler chickens is a necessity for weight gain, and many (>69%) thinking that no negative side-effects exist with the use of antibiotics. Poor attitude towards antimicrobial usage was prevalent (>63%) with unsatisfactory performance in most instruments: >60% of farmers reported using antimicrobials every week and still use antimicrobials when birds appear sick, and most (>84%) arbitrarily increase the drug dosages when used. However, a satisfactory performance score was reported (68%) in risk perception of AMR with >63% perceiving that inappropriate use of antibiotics is the main factor causing the emergence of resistant bacteria; >65.8% expressed that AMR in broiler chickens is not essential for public health, that AMR cannot develop from broiler bacteria diseases, that increasing the frequency of antimicrobial use cannot increase AMR in future, and that usage cannot lead to antibiotic residue in broiler-meat products leading to AMR development in human. None of the respondents were aware of any regulation for monitoring antimicrobial use. Significant factors associated with knowledge, attitudes, and risk perception of antimicrobial use and resistance among broiler grow-out farmers include marital status, farm category, education, educational specialization, sales target, growth duration/cycle, broiler stocking batch, and feed source. Identified gaps exist in AMR awareness among Nigerian broiler farmers and should be targeted through stakeholders' participation in combatting AMR threats.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Municipal Abattoirs in Nigeria: Showing Highly Similar Clones and Possible Transmission from Slaughter Animals to Humans.

In recent years, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has gained interest in veterinary medicine due to its zoonotic potential. Currently, little information is available on the genotypic and virulence characteristics of MRSA isolates detected in Nigerian abattoirs. To better understand the epidemiology of MRSA associated with the abattoir food chain environment in Nigeria, a total of 18 isolates (humans: n = 5, slaughter animals: n = 5, and environment: n = 8), previously spa typed, were recovered and characterized by Staphylococcus cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing, and phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial susceptibility testing. In addition, 10 of the 18 MRSA strains with a new spa type (t16571) were subjected to multilocus sequence typing. The similarity of strains was analyzed based on the results of the DNA microarray analysis. The 18 MRSA strains harbored two distinct SCCmec types (IVa and V) and belonged to four clonal clusters (CC1, CC7, CC88, and CC152). All MRSA of the new spa type t16571 (n = 10) harbored the SCCmec type IVa. Seven of the MRSA t16571 strains belonged to ST88, while three other strains were assigned to ST3614. The 18 MRSA isolates were categorized into six virulence profiles, and the detection rate for the Panton-Valentine Leukocidin gene was high (33.3%). The antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the 18 MRSA varied widely between strains, but phenotypic resistance corresponded to relevant resistance genes harbored. The detection of highly similar MRSA strains in slaughter animals, abattoir workers, and the environment underlines the need to use adequate measures at Nigerian abattoirs to prevent further spread and transmission of MRSA to humans or food.

Risk Perceptions of Antibiotic Usage and Resistance: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Poultry Farmers in Kwara State, Nigeria.

Overwhelming empirical evidence has highlighted the contribution of indiscriminate antibiotic usage (ABU) in food animals to the overall burden of antibiotic resistance (ABR) in humans, thus making antibiotic use the main selective pressure driving antibiotic resistance. The social and behavioral perspective on antibiotic use and resistance in poultry is limited. Our study therefore aimed at obtaining information on antibiotic usage, awareness of ABR, and the attitude and perceptions towards prudent antibiotic usage and ABR. A cross-sectional survey using a structured questionnaire was conducted in 125 poultry farms in Kwara state in December 2019. Most farmers (69.6%, n = 87/125) were aware of ABR and had satisfactory knowledge about ABR with a mean knowledge score of 3.2 ± 1.5. Age (older farmers; OR: 1.1, 95% CI: 1.0, 1.2) and gender (male respondents, OR: 8.5, 95% CI: 3.0, 23.9; p < 0.01) were more likely to have satisfactory knowledge of ABR. Tertiary education was significantly associated with ABR awareness (OR: 4.7; 95% CI: 0.1, 0.7; p = 0.007) and the ABR knowledge level (OR: 7.8; 95% CI: 3.3, 18.7; p < 0.01). Higher flock size was significantly associated with a satisfactory knowledge of ABR (OR: 9.5; 95% CI: 3.8, 23.6; p < 0.01). Most of the poultry farmers (68%) had positive attitudes towards prudent antibiotic use with a mean score of 2.7 ± 0.9. On the contrary, only 32.8% of poultry farmers had a desirable perception of ABR with a mean perception score of 4.9 ± 1.1. The ABR knowledge level was significantly associated with the perceptions of farmers (p < 0.05) but not their attitudes toward ABU and ABR (p = 0.083). There was evidence of unprescribed use of antibiotics in poultry and a failure to observe antibiotic withdrawal periods. These constitute a risk of exposure to unacceptable levels of drug residues from poultry products and an increased risk of ABR. Improving education and communication on antibiotic stewardship programs are crucial to prevent the looming antibiotic threat.

Knowledge of Antimicrobial Resistance among Veterinary Students and Their Personal Antibiotic Use Practices: A National Cross-Sectional Survey.

The challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is grave in developing countries. Antimicrobials are misused yet stakeholders' contribution to antimicrobial stewardship is low. Veterinary students are future prescribers and their knowledge could influence progress in combating AMR; hence, there is a need to assess their knowledge, attitude, and awareness of AMR. A multi-institutional questionnaire was administered to undergraduates in Nigerian veterinary schools. It comprised demographics, own personal antibiotic usage, and knowledge, attitude, and awareness of AMR in humans and animals. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used for analyses. Of the 426 respondents, 39.2% reported personal antimicrobial use in the previous six months. Over 60% received knowledge scores lower than average and >87% requested more education on clinical use and prescriptions pre-graduation, monitored dispensing of antimicrobials, conducting AMR research, and confirmed link among human, animal, and environmental health. Less than 25% of respondents were aware of antimicrobial stewardship and global efforts/organizations for AMR. Final year students have 9-fold and 14-fold more satisfactory knowledge on antimicrobials in humans and animals compared with other students, respectively (p = 0.001). Final year students also have more knowledge (13×) and awareness of contributory factors (3×) on AMR (p = 0.001) than other students. Unsatisfactory knowledge on AMR issues exists among veterinary students yet willingness to improve was observed. Identified knowledge, attitude, and gaps in AMR awareness should be targeted by veterinary schools in Nigeria.

Staphylococcus aureus in two municipal abattoirs in Nigeria: Risk perception, spread and public health implications.

Staphylococcus aureus is a zoonotic pathogen of significant public health concern. Information on the prevalence and risk factors facilitating bacterial colonization and spread under abattoir settings in Nigeria are scarce. This cross-sectional study was designed to determine prevalence of S. aureus as well as risk factors on knowledge and practices facilitating pathogen carriage among workers and slaughter animals in two municipal abattoirs of Ilorin and Ibadan, Nigeria. Swab samples (n = 1671) from nostrils of cattle, goats, pigs and abattoir workers, and from meat tables and abattoir walls were collected for detection of S. aureus. A questionnaire was administered to 275 workers to elucidate risk factors of pathogen carriage applying a logistic regression model. S. aureus prevalence was 6.5%. In total, MSSA and MRSA were detected at a frequency of 5.4% and 1.1%. Molecular analysis of the isolates revealed 19 different spa types, including a novel spa type (t16751). Gender, marital status, occupation and abattoir location were factors influencing worker's practices in relation to pathogen carriage and spread in the abattoir setting. This present study detected not only low MSSA and MRSA prevalence, in both abattoirs but also low risk perception and hygiene practices employed by abattoir workers. Good practices among workers at Nigerian abattoirs are needed to mitigate S. aureus carriage. Further studies expounding the antibiotic resistance and relationships of MSSA and MRSA strains detected in this study are needed to complement understanding of the spread of S. aureus in the abattoir food chain.

Assessment of the contamination potentials of some foodborne bacteria in biofilms for food products.

OBJECTIVE: To assess biofilms formed by different bacterial strains on glass slides, and changes in biofilm mass and biofilm-associated cell populations after brief contacts between biofilms and either media agar or food products. METHODS: Two Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains and a single Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) strain were inoculated separately in tryptic soy broth containing glass coupons incubated for 24, 48 or 72 h at 37 °C. The biofilms formed by individual bacterial strains and biofilm-associated cell populations were determined. Biofilms were subsequently allowed to have brief contacts (1-3 times), through gentle touching, with either agar, meat or soft white cheese (2 cm(3)). Changes in biofilm mass on glass slides and cell populations embedded in biofilms were quantified. RESULTS: A nonpathogenic E. coli formed more biofilms than an E. coli O157:H7 strain. Biofilms formed by S. aureus and Listeria monocytogenes were essentially similar. The biofilm mass increased as incubation time increased within 48 h of incubation and was not positively correlated with cellulose production. Biofilm mass at 48 and 72 h of incubation was not significantly different. More frequent contacts with agar or foods did not remove more biofilms or biofilm-associated cells from glass slides. More S. aureus biofilms were removed followed by Listeria and E. coli biofilms. Mean contamination of agar or food models was 0.00 to 7.65 log CFU/cm(2). Greater contaminations in cell populations were observed with S. aureus and Listeria biofilms. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide a clearer assessment of contaminating potential of foods that comes in contact with them.

Biofilm formation by Mycobacterium bovis: influence of surface kind and temperatures of sanitizer treatments on biofilm control.

Mycobacterium bovis causes classic bovine tuberculosis, a zoonosis which is still a concern in Africa. Biofilm forming ability of two Mycobacterium bovis strains was assessed on coupons of cement, ceramic, or stainless steel in three different microbiological media at 37°C with agitation for 2, 3, or 4 weeks to determine the medium that promotes biofilm. Biofilm mass accumulated on coupons was treated with 2 sanitizers (sanitizer A (5.5 mg L(-1) active iodine) and sanitizer B (170.6 g(1) alkyl dimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride, 78 g(-1) didecyldimethyl ammonium chloride, 107.25 g L(-1) glutaraldehyde, 146.25 g L(-1) isopropanol, and 20 g L(-1) pine oil) at 28 and 45°C and in hot water at 85°C for 5 min. Residual biofilms on treated coupons were quantified using crystal violet binding assay. The two strains had a similar ability to form biofilms on the three surfaces. More biofilms were developed in media containing 5% liver extract. Biofilm mass increased as incubation time increased till the 3rd week. More biofilms were formed on cement than on ceramic and stainless steel surfaces. Treatment with hot water at 85°C reduced biofilm mass, however, sanitizing treatments at 45°C removed more biofilms than at 28°C. However, neither treatment completely eliminated the biofilms. The choice of processing surface and temperatures used for sanitizing treatments had an impact on biofilm formation and its removal from solid surfaces.

Oxytetracycline and penicillin-G residues in cattle slaughtered in south-western Nigeria: implications for livestock disease management and public health.

After the discovery of indiscriminate antibiotic use in ready-for-slaughter cattle in south-western Nigeria, 90 tissue samples from randomly selected slaughtered cattle were evaluated for oxytetracycline and penicillin-G residues using high performance liquid chromatography and the data analysed by one-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA). The findings revealed residues of oxytetracycline (kidney: 9.47 µ/kg ± 3.24 µ/kg; liver: 12.73 µ/kg ± 4.39 µ/kg; muscle: 16.17 µ/kg ± 5.52 µ/kg) and penicillin-G (kidney: 6.27 µ/kg ± 2.46 µ/kg; liver: 8.5 µ/kg ± 2.80 µ/kg; muscle: 11.67 µ/kg ± 2.94 µ/kg) in all tissues screened. Significantly high levels (oxytetracycline: F = 16.77; penicillin-G: F = 29.38) were, however, found in muscles, followed by liver and then kidney ­ findings confirming recent antibiotic administration to the animals before slaughter. The dietary intakes through the tissues screened were 0.024% (oxytetracycline) and 0.017% (penicillin-G) of the acceptable daily intake (ADI). Although the concentrations in the tissues screened were below the maximum residue limits despite recent administration of these antibiotics before slaughter, the lower concentrations are suggestive of the probable low dosages often administered by those involved in indiscriminate use of antibiotics. This therefore raises serious concerns for the livestock industry as well as human health, given the resultant emergence and spread of resistant strains of bacterial pathogens that could ensue from prolonged use of low dosages of antibiotics. Additionally, the lower concentrations of the daily intakes notwithstanding, the plausible exposure to these antibiotics from other food sources is a cause for concern. Since antimicrobial misuse and its consequent effects are not just a problem limited to Nigeria but also a concern in sub-Saharan Africa, the need for national and international stakeholder intervention is emphasised.