Implication of phytometabolites on metal tolerance of the pseudo-metallophyte -Rosmarinus officinalis- in a Mediterranean brownfield.

This study highlights the trace metal and metalloid (TMM) accumulation in Rosmarinus officinalis L. and its chemical responses when exposed to high levels of contamination. R. officinalis individuals growing along a gradient of mixed TMM soil pollution, resulting from past industrial activities, were analysed. Several plant secondary metabolites, known to be involved in plant tolerance to TMM or as a plant health indicator, were investigated. The levels of thiol compounds and phytochelatin precursors (cysteine and glutathione) in the shoots were measured in the laboratory, while a portable non-destructive instrument was used to determine the level of phenolic compounds and chlorophylls directly on site. The level of Pb, As, Sb and Zn contaminations within the soil and plants was also determined. The results highlighted a decrease of TMM translocation with increases of soil contamination. The concentration of TMM in the shoots followed the Mitscherlich equation and reached a plateau at 0.41, 7.9, 0.37, 51.3 mg kg-1 for As, Pb, Sb and Zn, respectively. In the shoots, the levels of thiols and phenols were correlated to concentrations of TMM. Glutathione seems to be the main thiol compounds involved in the tolerance to As, Pb and Sb. Phenols indices, using non-destructive measurements, may be considered as an easy way to establish a proxy to estimate the TMM contamination level of the R. officinalis shoots. The study highlights metabolic processes that contribute to the high potential of R. officinalis for phytostabilisation of TMM in contaminated areas in the Mediterranean.

Soil carbon dioxide venting through rice roots.

The growth of rice in submerged soils depends on its ability to form continuous gas channels-aerenchyma-through which oxygen (O2 ) diffuses from the shoots to aerate the roots. Less well understood is the extent to which aerenchyma permits venting of respiratory carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the opposite direction. Large, potentially toxic concentrations of dissolved CO2 develop in submerged rice soils. We show using X-ray computed tomography and image-based mathematical modelling that CO2 venting through rice roots is far greater than thought hitherto. We found rates of venting equivalent to a third of the daily CO2 fixation in photosynthesis. Without this venting through the roots, the concentrations of CO2 and associated bicarbonate (HCO3- ) in root cells would have been well above levels known to be toxic to roots. Removal of CO2 and hence carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ) from the soil was sufficient to increase the pH in the rhizosphere close to the roots by 0.7 units, which is sufficient to solubilize or immobilize various nutrients and toxicants. A sensitivity analysis of the model showed that such changes are expected for a wide range of plant and soil conditions.

Soil CO2 venting as one of the mechanisms for tolerance of Zn deficiency by rice in flooded soils.

We sought to explain rice (Oryza sativa) genotype differences in tolerance of zinc (Zn) deficiency in flooded paddy soils and the counter-intuitive observation, made in earlier field experiments, that Zn uptake per plant increases with increasing planting density. We grew tolerant and intolerant genotypes in a Zn-deficient flooded soil at high and low planting densities and found (a) plant Zn concentrations and growth increased with planting density and more so in the tolerant genotype, whereas the concentrations of other nutrients decreased, indicating a specific effect on Zn uptake; (b) the effects of planting density and genotype on Zn uptake could only be explained if the plants induced changes in the soil to make Zn more soluble; and (c) the genotype and planting density effects were both associated with decreases in dissolved CO2 in the rhizosphere soil solution and resulting increases in pH. We suggest that the increases in pH caused solubilization of soil Zn by dissolution of alkali-soluble, Zn-complexing organic ligands from soil organic matter. We conclude that differences in venting of soil CO2 through root aerenchyma were responsible for the genotype and planting density effects.

Transfer of metals and metalloids from soil to shoots in wild rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) growing on a former lead smelter site: human exposure risk.

This study aimed at estimating exposition risks to wild rosemary used as herbs in the contaminated area of the former smelting factory of L'Escalette (South of Marseille, France). Metals and metalloids i.e. Pb, As, Sb, Zn, and Cu concentrations were analyzed in soils and in rosemary aerial parts (stems and leaves) on two sites: one heavily contaminated and the other far away from the pollution source, considered as reference. The metal and metalloid transfer into water during the brewing process of herbal tea was also determined. A mixed contamination by the above-cited contaminants was demonstrated in soils of the factory site, with average concentrations of 9253, 1127, 309, 2698 and 32 mg/kg for Pb, As, Sb, Zn and Cu, respectively. However, metals and metalloids' transfer in rosemary aerial parts was limited, as bioaccumulation factors were under 1. Thus, Pb, As and Cu concentrations in leaves were below international regulation limits concerning ingestion of medicinal herbs (no regulation values available for Sb and Zn). This study highlighted that, if contaminated rosemary leaves were ingested, health risks may be limited since acceptable daily intake (ADI) for Pb, As, Sb and Cu (no ADI value available for Zn) will only be reached if very high quantities are consumed. Furthermore, we aimed to establish if this mixed contamination could alter rosemary's essential oil quality, and thereby the compositions of essential oils obtained from individuals on the heavily contaminated soil were compared to those obtained from the reference population. An increased biosynthesis of antioxidant compounds was favored in essential oils from rosemary individuals growing in contaminated site. Although the health risk of a long-term exposition of low level of the mixed contamination by rosemary ingestion is not easy to elucidate, the use of rosemary essential oils from contaminated site appears as safe.