Salmonella Serovars, Antibiotic Resistance, and Virulence Factors Isolated from Intestinal Content of Slaughtered Chickens and Ready-to-Eat Chicken Gizzards in the Ilorin Metropolis, Kwara State, Nigeria.

Salmonellosis is one of the most common and widely distributed food-borne diseases, and the presence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella in poultry and poultry products is a global public health problem. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2016 to July 2017 with an aim of determining the isolation rates of Salmonella species from the intestinal contents of slaughtered chickens, the most common serotypes that invade and colonize the tissues of chickens in Ilorin, and the susceptibilities of the isolated species to commonly used antibiotics. Four hundred samples of intestinal contents from apparently healthy slaughtered chickens and one hundred ready-to-eat chicken gizzards in Ilorin, Kwara State, were examined for the presence of Salmonella and their serotypes. Salmonellae were isolated and identified according to the techniques recommended by the World Health Organization: preenrichment, selective plating, biochemical testing, and serotyping. A total number of forty-three (43) Salmonella isolates consisting of 33 from intestinal contents and 10 from ready-to-eat chicken gizzards were isolated and identified. There was an overall Salmonella prevalence rate of 8.6% (43/500), and the isolates were distributed as follows: gizzard, 2% (n = 10) and intestinal contents, 6.6% (n = 33). The predominant serovars were Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar 45: d: 1, 7 (16) and S. Haifa (5). All ready-to-eat chicken gizzards were associated with Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar 45: d: 1, 7 (5). The Salmonella from intestinal contents belong to Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovars 45: d: 1, 7 (11) and S. Haifa (5). Salmonella species isolated were 100% resistant to ciprofloxacin, ampicillin, and ceftazidime. This is followed by cloxacillin (81%), tetracycline (75%), and sulfamethoxazole (67%). The Salmonella isolates were, however, 100% sensitive to enrofloxacin, 74% to streptomycin, and 72% to gentamycin antibiotics. The most common serotype was S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar 45: d: 1, 7. All the twenty five Salmonella serovars consisting of twenty-one serotypes (n = 21), two of the Salmonella that could not be cultured after enrichment, and the two that were contaminated with Proteus possessed the virulence genes of invA and stn. The Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar 45: d: 1, 7 and S. Haifa possess virulence genes so they are potentially virulent for humans in this area. The national and local health authorities in Nigeria should improve hygiene measures especially at retail slaughter markets to reduce salmonellosis which is one of the most important food-borne diseases in humans.

A Facile Synthesis and Reactions of Some Novel Pyrazole-based Heterocycles.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE: This work presents the synthetic capability and the exploitation of 1,3-diphenyl- 1H-pyrazole-4-carboxladehyde 1 and 5-diphenyl pyrazolyl-2-pyrazoline analogue 8 to serve as excellent precursors for the synthesis of substituted indol-2,3-dione, trizolo[3,4-a]benzazoles, thiazolo[2,3- a]benzimidazole-3-one, substituted 2-pyrazoline and pyrazole-substituted-pyrazolines using various reagents. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using chemicals from Aldrich, Fluka, or Merck, and pure solvents, we apply the synthetic procedures for the synthesis of novel heterocycles. The melting points of these compounds were determined using APP. Digital ST 15 melting point apparatus. SP3-100 spectrophotometer recorded FT-IR spectra (KBr) (cm-1). NMR spectra (δ, ppm) were recorded on 400 MHz AVANCE-III High-Performance FT-NMR Spectrometer BRUCKER (Switzerland) and some 1H NMR spectra were recorded on Varian EM-360L NMR Spectrophotometer (90 MHz) (USA) in CDCl3 or DMSO-d6 as a solvent. Elemental analyses were carried out at a Vario EL C, H, N, and S Analyzer. Bromine was determined using direct titration method after carius combustion. RESULTS: The structures of the compounds were confirmed by IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and elemental analyses. CONCLUSION: 1,3-Diphenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxladehyde 1 and 2-pyrazoline derivative 9 confirmed their importance in the synthetic organic chemistry. Depending on the formyl group of aldehyde 1 and active methylene of pyrazoline 8, we synthesized new series of heterocycles; indol-2,3-dione, trizolo[3,4-a]benzazole, thiazolo[2,3-a]benzimidazole-3-one and pyrazolyl-pyrazoline derivatives expecting their pharmacological applications. The targeted compounds were substantiated from its spectral data.

Novel Heterocyclic Hybrids Based on 2-Pyrazoline: Synthesis and Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activities.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE: A series of new 2-pyrazoline analogues were synthesized. The structures of the synthesized compounds were elucidated by the analytical and spectroscopic data. Some selected compounds were screened for the anti-inflammatory activity by using animal model of carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice. Additionally, the analgesic and acute toxicity of these compounds were evaluated and exhibited reasonable results. The anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of these compounds were established by measuring the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), nitric oxide (NO), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the edema paw tissue. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All chemicals and reagents used in current study were of analytical grade. Melting points were determined using APP. Digital ST 15 melting point apparatus and are uncorrected. FT-IR spectra were recorded on a Pye-Unicam SP3-100 spectrophotometer in KBr pellet. All 1H and 13C NMR spectra were recorded on AVANCE-III (400 MHz) High Performance FT-NMR Spectrometer Brucker (Switzerland) and some 1H NMR spectra were recorded on Varian EM-360L NMR Spectrophotometer (60 MHz) (USA) in CDCl3 or DMSO-d6 as solvent. Chemical shifts are reported in δ units and the coupling constants (J) are reported in hertz. C, H, N and S analyses were performed with a Vario EL C, H, N, S Analyzer. Carrageenan (product number C1013) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (USA). RESULTS: The structures of the compounds were confirmed by IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and elemental analyses. The results of pharmacological activity revealed that compounds 5, 6, 7, and 15 could be recognized as potential multi-potent anti-inflammatory. CONCLUSION: A simple and suitable method for the synthesis of new pharmacophore was reported. We have designed nineteen heterocycles related to pyrazoline ring, and evaluated eleven of them for their antiinflammatory, analgesic and acute toxicity activities. Compounds 5, 6, 7, and 15 proved to be the interesting compounds, they have high anti-inflammatory activity. However, all the selected compounds show remarkable analgesic activity.

Sleep health of healthcare workers in Kano, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: The relevance of sleep in the life of a human being cannot be overemphasized in terms of physical and mental well-being. Among several factors that can affect the sleep health of an individual occupation have been found to play a prominent role. The literature is still scanty with regard to sleep studies in our environment. AIM: This study aims to assess the sleep health of tertiary healthcare workers in Kano Nigeria and find, if any, its determining or related factors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study was cross-sectional questionnaire-based survey and involved all consenting staff members of Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, Nigeria. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index Questionnaire was used to assess the sleep health of the participants. RESULTS: The participants' ages ranged from 18 to 65 years and have a mean age of 38.94 ± 8.07 years. There were 119 (74.4%) males and 41 (25.4%) females with a M:F ratio of 3:1 (χ2 = 19.415; P = 0.000). Among the 155 participants who completed all the aspects of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index questionnaires, the overall sleep quality of the study population was found to be significantly poor [good sleepers = 71 (45.8%), poor sleepers = 84 (54.2%), χ2 = 116.4; P = 0.000]. Considering the various occupational groups working in the hospital, poor sleep was commonest among the nurses 35 (42.7%). Furthermore, among the nurses, poor sleep was significantly commoner in those on shift work 27 (77.1%) than those not on shift work 8 (22.9%); χ2 = 36.2; P = 0.000. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that age, sex, and duration in service were not significant predictors of poor sleep quality among the participants [odds ratio (OR) = 1.013, 95% confidence interest (CI) = 0.948-1.084, P = 0.698; OR = 0.691, 95% CI = 0.293-1.631, P = 0.399; and OR = 0.993, 95% CI = 0.932-1.058 P = 0.840, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Our study found that a significant proportion of healthcare workers and particularly nurses had poor sleep quality. Also, age, sex, and duration in service were not significant predictors of poor sleep quality among the participants.

Transglutaminase 2 overexpression induces depressive-like behavior and impaired TrkB signaling in mice.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are two signaling molecules that have important regulatory roles in the development and plasticity of neural circuits that are known to be altered in depression. However, the mechanism by which 5-HT regulates BDNF signaling is unknown. In the present study, we found that 5-HT treatment increases BDNF receptor, TrkB (tropomyosin related kinase B), levels in mouse primary cortical neurons via a Rac1 (RAS-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1)-dependent mechanism. Significant increases in the levels of type-2 transglutaminase (TG2, which is implicated in transamidation of 5-HT to Rac1) are observed in the mouse prefrontal cortex (PFC) following chronic exposure to stress. We also found that TG2 levels are increased in the post-mortem PFC of depressed suicide subjects relative to matched controls. Moreover, in mice, neuronal overexpression of TG2 resulted in the atrophy of neurons and reduced levels of TrkB in the PFC as well as a depressive-like phenotype. Overexpression of TG2 in mouse cortical neurons reduced TrkB levels as a result of impaired endocytosis of TrkB. TG2 inhibition by either a viral particle or pharmacological approach attenuated behavioral deficits caused by chronic unpredictable stress. Moreover, the overexpression of TrkB in the mouse PFC ameliorated the depressive-like phenotype of TG2-overexpressed mice. Taken together, these post-mortem and preclinical findings identify TG2 as a critical mediator of the altered TrkB expression and depressive-like behaviors associated with chronic exposure to stress and suggest that TG2 may represent a novel therapeutic target in depression.

Latent variable mixture modeling in psychiatric research--a review and application.

Latent variable mixture modeling represents a flexible approach to investigating population heterogeneity by sorting cases into latent but non-arbitrary subgroups that are more homogeneous. The purpose of this selective review is to provide a non-technical introduction to mixture modeling in a cross-sectional context. Latent class analysis is used to classify individuals into homogeneous subgroups (latent classes). Factor mixture modeling represents a newer approach that represents a fusion of latent class analysis and factor analysis. Factor mixture models are adaptable to representing categorical and dimensional states of affairs. This article provides an overview of latent variable mixture models and illustrates the application of these methods by applying them to the study of the latent structure of psychotic experiences. The flexibility of latent variable mixture models makes them adaptable to the study of heterogeneity in complex psychiatric and psychological phenomena. They also allow researchers to address research questions that directly compare the viability of dimensional, categorical and hybrid conceptions of constructs.

Association of serum VEGF levels with prefrontal cortex volume in schizophrenia.

A large body of evidence indicates alterations in brain regional cellular energy metabolism and blood flow in schizophrenia. Among the different molecules regulating blood flow, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is generally accepted as the major factor involved in the process of angiogenesis. In the present study, we examined whether peripheral VEGF levels correlate with changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) volume in patients with schizophrenia and in healthy controls. Whole-blood samples were obtained from 96 people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 83 healthy controls. Serum VEGF protein levels were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, whereas quantitative PCR was performed to measure interleukin-6 (IL-6, a pro-inflammatory marker implicated in schizophrenia) mRNA levels in the blood samples. Structural magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained using a 3T Achieva scanner on a subset of 59 people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 65 healthy controls, and prefrontal volumes were obtained using FreeSurfer software. As compared with healthy controls, individuals with schizophrenia had a significant increase in log-transformed mean serum VEGF levels (t(177)=2.9, P=0.005). A significant inverse correlation (r=-0.40, P=0.002) between serum VEGF and total frontal pole volume was found in patients with schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder. Moreover, we observed a significant positive association (r=0.24, P=0.03) between serum VEGF and IL-6 mRNA levels in patients with schizophrenia. These findings suggest an association between serum VEGF and inflammation, and that serum VEGF levels are related to structural abnormalities in the PFC of people with schizophrenia.

Neurocognition as a predictor of outcome in schizophrenia in the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966.

The purpose of this study was to study neurocognitive performance as a predictor of outcomes in midlife schizophrenia. There is a lack of studies with unselected samples and a long follow-up. The study is based on the prospective, unselected population-based Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966. The study includes 43 individuals with schizophrenia and 73 controls, whose neurocognitive performance was assessed twice, at 34 and 43 years. At both time points we used identical neurocognitive tests to assess verbal and visual memory and executive functions. Our main aim was to analyse neurocognitive performance at 34 years as a predictor of clinical, vocational and global outcomes at 43 years. Additionally, the analysis addressed cross-sectional associations between cognitive performance and clinical, vocational and global measures at 43 years. The assessment of outcomes was performed in the schizophrenia group only. In the longitudinal analysis poorer visual memory predicted poorer vocational outcome and poorer long-term verbal memory predicted poorer global outcome. In the cross-sectional analysis poorer visual memory and lower composite score of neurocognition were associated with poorer global outcome. No individual neurocognitive test or the composite score of these predicted remission. These data indicate that neurocognition, especially memory function, is an important determinant of long-term functional outcome in midlife schizophrenia.

Indications for tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy: our experience.

BACKGROUND: Infection and obstruction are the most common indications for performing tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. In the past, infection was the main indication for these procedures; however, in the last few decades obstruction is said to be more prominent as an indication when compared to infection. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to report our observations of indications for tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a 2 year retrospective analysis of case records of patients aged 0-18 years who have had tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy and adenotonsillectomy performed in a tertiary hospital. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED: IBM SPSS (for windows, version 19) software was used to analyze this data. RESULTS: A total of 115 patient's records were reviewed. Moreover, 33.9% were children under 3 years, 60.0% were between 4 years and 10 years and 6.1% were between the ages of 11 years and 18 years. Obstruction accounted for a total of 68.7% while infection accounted for only 31.3% of the indication for these procedures. CONCLUSION: Obstruction as an indication is proportionally higher in younger children while infection is proportionally higher in older children.

Latent structure of psychotic experiences in the general population.

OBJECTIVE: There have been increasing pressures to adopt or incorporate dimensional representations in various sections of DSM-5 including the psychotic disorders section. Thus far, findings offered as evidence of a continuous distribution of psychosis are limited given their exclusive focus on the manifest rather than latent structure of psychotic experiences. The current study sought to determine whether or not psychotic experiences possess a taxonic or dimensional latent structure. METHOD: We investigated the latent structure of psychotic experiences in the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys (CPES) and the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS). We analyzed responses of participants in these surveys with three multivariate taxometric procedures (MAMBAC, MAXEIG, and L-Mode) after summing responses on the surveys into three indicators of positive psychosis. RESULTS: Taxometric results tended to support a dimensional, rather than taxonic structure for psychotic experiences. In the CPES, all taxometric methods produced graphical and numerical support for a dimensional structure. In the NCS, MAMBAC appeared to slightly support a taxonic structure, whereas MAXEIG and L-Mode supported a dimensional structure. CONCLUSION: There appears to be a dimensional distribution of psychotic experiences in the general population. This supports the incorporation of dimensional representations of psychotic symptoms in the current diagnostic system.

Audiometric findings in Waardenburg's syndrome amongst the institutionalised deaf/blind in Kaduna-Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: Waardenburg's syndrome (WS) is a rare inherited disorder of congenital hearing loss and Pigmentary disturbances of the eyes, hair, skin and neural crest derivatives. MATERIALS & METHODS: 620 students in a deaf/blind school were examined and four had WS with a frequency of 0.65%. 2 males and 2 females with WS and age ranges between 10-19yrs {mean 15.75yrs.} All 4 subjects had complete blue irides, white forelock and sensorineural hearing loss, and thus met the diagnostic criteria. They were then subjected to Audiometric assessment. RESULTS: Otoscopy was essentially normal but Audiometry revealed sensorineural hearing loss [SNHL] in all the subjects ranging from severe to profound with one subject being stone deaf. CONCLUSION: WS is a rare disorder in our environment although it may be under reported. Two ofthe subjects benefited from amplification and were given hearing Aids. Provision of early amplification cannot be over emphasized.

Ophthalmologic abnormalities among deaf students in Kaduna, Northern Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: The association between deafness and ocular problems is well established; however the nature and prevalence of these problems are diverse across the globe. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to determine the nature and prevalence of ophthalmologic abnormalities in deaf students and offer treatment to those with remediable conditions. METHOD: Six hundred and twenty deaf students aged between 5 and 38 years were examined in a school for the deaf. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty (20.9%) had some form of ophthalmologic abnormality. Some had anterior segment abnormalities such as corneal opacities (0.5%) and allergic conjunctivitis (3.4%) while others had posterior segment abnormalities like optic atrophy (0.3%), Waardenburg syndrome (0.6%) and Ushers syndrome (0.6%). Refractive error was the most common (7.9%). CONCLUSION: Since these deaf students use their sight to compensate for the deafness, routine ophthalmologic examination should be carried out on them so that ophthalmologic abnormalities are detected early and treatment offered for remediable diseases.

Plain radiographic evaluation of children with obstructive adenoids.

BACKGROUND: There are several methods of evaluating adenoidal size pre-operatively. Plain nasopharyngeal radiography is a common investigative modality: it has been advocated, and also condemned. AIM: This study was intended to assess nasopharyngeal airway obstruction by the adenoids using plain X-rays; and also to find correlation if any, with the symptomatology. METHODS: This is a retrospective study carried out between January and December 2008. The case notes and plain X-rays of the nasopharynx of 34 paediatric patients with clinical features of obstructive adenoids were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 34 children were studied, 22 (64.7%) were males and 12 (35.3%) were females. Their ages ranged between 7 months and 10 years: mean age was 3.55 years, standard deviation 2.723. Majority (67.6%) of the children were in the age group 0-4 years. The lowest symptomatology assessment score was 0 and the highest was 3. Children 4 years and below had the highest symptomatology scores. The minimum adenoidal-nasopharyngeal ratio was 0.35 and the maximum was 0.94. There was no significant difference in the mean adenoidal-nasopharyngeal ratio of males and females (t=0.407; p=0.692). Many (75.0%) of the children with moderate to severe nasopharyngeal airway obstruction by the adenoids were in the age bracket 0-4 years. The lowest adenoidal-nasopharyngeal ratio score was 0 and the highest was 3. Children 4 years and below had the highest adenoidal-nasopharyngeal ratio scores. There was a very weak nonsignificant correlation between the symptomatology assessment score and the radiological assessment score (r=0.168; p=0.375). CONCLUSION: The adenoidal-nasopharyngeal ratio is reliable in assessing the nasopharyngeal airway in children with obstructive adenoids.

Audiometric findings in Waardenburg's syndrome amongst the institutionalised deaf/ blind in Kaduna-Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: Waardenburg's syndrome is a rare inherited disorder of congenital hearing loss and Pigmentary disturbances of the eyes, hair, skin and neural crest derivatives. METHODOLOGY: 620 students in a deaf/blind school were examined end four had Waardenburg's syndrome with a frequency of 0.65%. 2 males and 2 females with Waardenburg's syndrome and age ranges between 1019 years (mean 15.75 years) All 4 subjects had complete blue irides, white forelock and sensorineural hearing loss, and thus met the diagnostic criteria. They were then subjected to Audiometric assessment. RESULTS: Otoscopy was essentially normal but Audiometry revealed sensorineural hearing loss [SNHL] in all the subjects ranging from severe to profound with one subject being stone deaf. CONCLUSION: Waardenburg's syndrome is a rare disorder in our environment although it may be under reported. Two of the subjects benefited from amplification and were given hearing Aids. Provision of early amplification cannot be over emphasized.

Audiometric Findings in Waardenburg's Syndrome amongst the Institutionalised Deaf Blind in Kaduna-Nigeria

Introduction:Waardenburg's syndrome is a rare inherited disorder of congenital hearing loss and Pigmentary disturbances of the eyes; hair; skin and neural crest derivatives. Methodology: 620 students in a deaf/blind school were examined and four had Waardenburg's syndrome with a frequency of 0.65. 2 males and 2 females with Waardenburg's syndrome and age ranges between 10-19years (mean 15.75years) All 4 subjects had complete blue irides; white forelock and sensorineural hearing loss; and thus met the diagnostic criteria. They were then subjected to Audiometric assessment. Results: Otoscopy was essentially normal but Audiometry revealed sensorineural hearing loss [SNHL] in all the subjects ranging from severe to profound with one subject being stone deaf. Conclusion: Waardenburg's syndrome is a rare disorder in our environment although it may be under reported.Two of the subjects benefited from amplification and were given hearing Aids. Provision of early amplification cannot be over emphasized

Cancer management in Sudan: current status and future perspectives

Introduction:Sudan is one of the developing countries that face a great challenge with cancer management.About 5700 cases had been seen during year 2007 in Radiation and Isotope Center- Khartoum (RICK)and Institute of Nuclear medicine; Molecular biology; and Oncology (INMO) Wadmedani which are the only cancer centers in Sudan. Purpose:Aim of this work is to highlight the difficulties of cancer management in Sudan and to propose possible solutions.Methods:This paper evaluates the current situation of cancer management in Sudan through reviewing of data available in cancer centers and reports from the Sudan national bureau of statistic.Suggestions are also made for cancer control plan in Sudan having the currentsituation in mind and guided by the published international data on cancer control.Results:The preliminary analysis of the available data reveals that Sudan has very limited resources available to deal with cancer and the service provided is not evenly distributed.Conclusion:Establishment of new centers is extremely needed with special attention to good distribution of services.To achieve such a goal training of more staff and upgrading of the existing centers is mandatory to manage all types of cancer.Cancer registry is the right way to plan for cancer control in sudan

Phylogeny and typification of Madurella mycetomatis, with a comparison of other agents of eumycetoma.

The genus Madurella, described for non-sporulating agents of human mycetoma, is proven to be heterogeneous on the basis of rDNA small subunit (SSU) and Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequencing data. Madurella mycetomatis, the main agent of mycetoma in arid zones of Central and East Africa, probably belongs to the ascomycete order Sordariales. Madurella mycetomatis, the generic type species, is neotypified. Madurella grisea, with worldwide occurrence, is likely to be a member of the order Pleosporales, just as the mycetoma agents of Leptosphaeria, Pseudochaetosphaeronema, and Pyrenochaeta. Neotestudina rosatii belongs to the order Dothideales. Judging from ITS data, M. mycetomatis and N. rosatii are species complexes. The ex-type strain of N. rosatii, from a human mycetome, has an ITS sequence that deviates from that of environmental strains of the species.

Diagnostic methods for typhoid fever in Nigeria.

In this study, 65 patients are screened for Salmonella typhi by conventional culture and the Widal test. In addition, the patients undergo full blood count are screened for malaria parasites. Of the 65 patients, 50 report febrile conditions, while the remaining 15 are used as a control population. In the febrile group, 13 (26%) were positive for S. typhi, while in the control group only one (7%) was positive for S. typhi. Overall, 36 (64.3%) patients had malaria parasites. Patients with a higher O antibody titre (> or = 1 in 80) by Widal test were found to have consumed both tap water and pure water. More females (10/14; mean age: 33) had typhoid fever as a result of S. typhi infection, the majority of which were isolated from stool samples (57%). Nine of the isolates were also positive for malaria parasites, seven of which were in the trophozoite stage. Plasmodium falciparum was the predominant parasite (78%), the remainder being P. malariae. The majority of patients (12/14) with typhoid fever had normal PCV values. In conclusion, it is recommended that tests for the diagnosis of typhoid fever in Nigeria should include malaria parasites, S. typhi culture from faecal samples, and the Widal test.

The immunopathology of actinomycetoma lesions caused by Streptomyces somaliensis.

The immune responses in actinomycetoma lesions caused by Streptomyces somaliensis in Sudan were characterized by immunohistochemistry during 1997-1998. In sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin, the inflammatory reaction around the grain was of 2 types. In type I there were 3 zones: a neutrophil zone immediately around the grain, an intermediate zone containing mainly macrophages, and a peripheral zone consisting of lymphocytes and plasma cells. Zone 1 stained positively for CD15 (neutrophils), zone 2 for CD68 (macrophages) and CD3 (T lymphocytes), and zone 3 for CD20 (B lymphocytes). In the type II reaction, there was no neutrophil zone, the grains being surrounded only by macrophages and giant cells. This was confirmed by immunohistochemistry, which demonstrated the presence of CD3 positive cells. Immunoglobulins G and M and complement were demonstrated on the surface of the grain and on filaments inside the grain. Neutrophils and macrophages were recruited into the lesion by complement and were involved in the fragmentation of the grain. The cytokine profile in the lesion and regional lymph nodes was of a dominant Th2 pattern (interleukins-10 and 4).