Broad-Spectrum and Gram-Negative-Targeting Antibiotics Differentially Regulate Antibody Isotype Responses to Injected Vaccines.

Antibiotics are extensively used worldwide for the treatment of common infections by agents such as E. coli and Salmonella. They also represent the most common cause of alteration of the microbiota in people. We addressed whether broad-spectrum and Gram-negative-targeting antibiotics differentially regulate systemic and mucosal immune responses to vaccines. Antibiotics treatment enhances serum IgG1 responses in mice immunized systemically with a model polyvalent vaccine. This increase was not seen for other IgG subclasses and was dependent on the immunogenicity of vaccine antigens. The broad-spectrum antibiotic cocktail also enhanced serum IgA responses. Interestingly, both the broad spectrum and the antibiotic targeting Gram-negative bacteria enhanced the number of IgA antibody secreting cells in the intestinal lamina propria. This effect was unlikely to be due to an increase in cells expressing gut-homing receptors (i.e., CCR9 and α4ß7) in peripheral tissues. On the other hand, the microbiome in mice treated with antibiotics was characterized by an overall reduction of the number of firmicutes. Furthermore, Bacteroidetes were increased by either treatment, and Proteobacteria were increased by the broad-spectrum antibiotics cocktail. Thus, immunoglobulin isotype and subclass responses are differentially regulated by oral antibiotics treatment and the gut microbiota shapes mucosal antibody responses after systemic immunization.

Role of mitogen-activated protein kinases in the induction of parathyroid hormone-related peptide.

Tumor production of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHRP) is responsible for most cases of hypercalcemia of malignancy. The transplantable rat Leydig tumor H-500 is known to cause hypercalcemia in rats by the release of abundant PTHRP and to closely reproduce the human syndrome. We have demonstrated recently that Ras oncogene can stimulate PTHRP gene expression in Fr3T3 fibroblasts in vitro and cause hypercalcemia in vivo. Using rat Leydig tumor H-500 cells, we have investigated the role of effector pathways downstream of Ras in serum-induced PTHRP expression. The Ras inhibitors B-1086 and Lovastatin decreased PTHRP mRNA expression. i.p. administration of B-1086 (50-100 mg/kg/day) into H-500 tumor-bearing male Fischer rats resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in tumor volume, serum calcium, plasma PTHRP, and tumoral PTHRP mRNA expression. Transient transfection of dominant-negative Ras (Ras N17) and Raf (Raf C4B) reduced, whereas activated Raf-1 (Raf BXB) increased, basal expression of PTHRP in H-500 cells. A similar decrease in PTHRP production was seen with a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) inhibitor (PD 098059), implicating the involvement of Ras/Raf/MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway. In addition, stimulation with UV light, which can activate c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), or expression of an activated form of Rac (Rac V12) was sufficient to increase PTHRP mRNA. Moreover, a dominant-negative Rac (Rac N17) blocked serum-induced PTHRP gene expression. Collectively, these results demonstrate that PTHRP is induced via both Raf-ERK and Rac-JNK mediated pathways, effects which can be blocked by chemical inhibitors and dominant-negative mutants of these pathways in vitro and in vivo. Availability of selective inhibitors of Ras signaling molecules may therefore add to our existing armamentarium to control hypercalcemia of malignancy.

Induction of parathyroid hormone-related peptide by the Ras oncogene: role of Ras farnesylation inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for hypercalcemia of malignancy.

Parathyroid hormone related peptide (PTHRP) is the major causal agent in the syndrome of malignancy-associated hypercalcemia (MAH). Several studies have shown that PTHRP production is increased in response to growth factors and oncogenes, such as Tpr-Met, that are associated with the tyrosine kinase signaling pathway. Using site-directed mutagenesis of Tpr-Met and chemical inhibitors of phosphotidylinositol-3 kinase and Ras isoprenylation, we demonstrated previously that induction of PTHRP is mediated via the Ras signaling pathway. In the present study, we have directly investigated the role of the Ras oncogene in MAH. As a model system, we used Fisher rat 3T3 fibroblasts stably transfected with a Ras oncogene (Ras-3T3). Ras transfection enhanced PTHRP production 5-10-fold in these cells, and inoculation of this cell line into nude mice led to the development of hypercalcemia within 2 weeks. We used this system to evaluate the effect of a potent inhibitor of Ras processing, B-1086, on cell growth, PTHRP production, plasma calcium, and tumor growth. Treatment of Ras-3T3 cells in vitro with B-1086 at 0.1-10 microg/ml produced a significant reduction in PTHRP mRNA expression and PTHRP secretion and a significant decrease in cell proliferation. Treatment in vivo of BALB/c/nu/nu mice bearing Ras-3T3 tumors with B-1086 resulted in a significant inhibition in tumor growth. In addition, this treatment produced near normalization of serum Ca2+, a significant decrease in plasma PTHRP, and a reduction in tumoral PTHRP mRNA levels. These results show that the Ras pathway is involved in PTHRP production by tumors, identifies Ras as a potential target for treatment of MAH, and demonstrates Ras processing inhibitors as candidate therapeutic agents against this syndrome.

Increased PTHRP production by a tyrosine kinase oncogene, Tpr-Met: role of the Ras signaling pathway.

We have used the Tpr-Met oncogene as a model to examine signaling pathways of growth factors and tyrosine kinase oncogenes that can increase parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHRP) production. PTHRP production in Tpr-Met transfected cells, when assessed by Northern blot analysis and radioimmunoassay, was increased four- to eightfold. Treatment of these cells with the transcriptional inhibitor actinomycin D and nuclear run-off assays showed that the major cause of increased PTHRP mRNA was enhanced gene transcription. To analyze the intracellular signaling molecules involved in PTHRP production, stable cell lines expressing a Tyr489 Phe mutant of the Tpr-Met oncoprotein were examined. The mutant fails to activate phosphatidylinositol (PI)-3 kinase or associate with the Grb-2 adaptor protein and caused a significant reduction in PTHRP production. Treatment of wild-type Tpr-Met transfected cells with wortmannin, a PI-3 kinase inhibitor, had no effect on PTHRP production; however, treatment of these cells with lovastatin, an inhibitor of p21ran isoprenylation, significantly reduced PTHRP expression. These results show that PTHRP is a downsteam target of the Tpr-Met oncogene and indicate that the PTHRP stimulating activity is mediated via the Ras signaling pathway.