A novel lentiviral vector-based approach to generate chimeric antigen receptor T cells targeting Aspergillus fumigatus.

Invasive aspergillosis (IA) is a common and deadly mold infection in immunocompromised patients. As morbidity and mortality of IA are primarily driven by poor immune defense, adjunct immunotherapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, are direly needed. Here, we propose a novel approach to generate Aspergillus fumigatus (AF)-CAR T cells using the single-chain variable fragment domain of monoclonal antibody AF-269-5 and a lentiviral vector system. These cells successfully targeted mature hyphal filaments of representative clinical and reference AF isolates and elicited a potent release of cytotoxic effectors and type 1 T cell cytokines. Furthermore, AF-CAR T cells generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of four healthy human donors and expanded with either of three cytokine stimulation regimens (IL-2, IL-2 + IL-21, or IL-7 + IL-15) significantly suppressed mycelial growth of AF-293 after 18 hours of co-culture and synergized with the immunomodulatory antifungal agent caspofungin to control hyphal growth for 36 hours. Moreover, cyclophosphamide-immunosuppressed NSG mice with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis that received two doses of 5 million AF-CAR T cells (6 and 48 hours after AF infection) showed significantly reduced morbidity on day 4 post-infection (P < 0.001) and significantly improved 7-day survival (P = 0.049) compared with mice receiving non-targeting control T cells, even without concomitant antifungal chemotherapy. In conclusion, we developed a novel lentiviral strategy to obtain AF-CAR T cells with high targeting efficacy, yielding significant anti-AF activity in vitro and short-term protection in vivo. Our approach could serve as an important steppingstone for future clinical translation of antifungal CAR T-cell therapy after further refinement and thorough preclinical evaluation.IMPORTANCEInvasive aspergillosis (IA) remains a formidable cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with hematologic malignancies and those undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Despite the introduction of several new Aspergillus-active antifungals over the last 30 years, the persisting high mortality of IA in the setting of continuous and profound immunosuppression is a painful reminder of the major unmet need of effective antifungal immune enhancement therapies. The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy in cancer medicine has inspired researchers to translate this approach to opportunistic infections, including IA. Aiming to refine anti-Aspergillus CAR T-cell therapy and improve its feasibility for future clinical translation, we herein developed and validated a novel antibody-based CAR construct and lentiviral transduction method to accelerate the production of CAR T cells with high targeting efficacy against Aspergillus fumigatus. Our unique approach could provide a promising platform for future clinical translation of CAR T-cell-based antifungal immunotherapy.

Development of a Corticosteroid-Immunosuppressed Mouse Model to Study the Pathogenesis and Therapy of Influenza-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis.

Influenza-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (IAPA) is a feared complication in patients with influenza tracheobronchitis, especially those receiving corticosteroids. Herein, we established a novel IAPA mouse model with low-inoculum Aspergillus infection and compared outcomes in mice with and without cortisone acetate (CA) immunosuppression. CA was an independent predictor of increased morbidity/mortality in mice with IAPA. Early antifungal treatment with liposomal amphotericin B was pivotal to improve IAPA outcomes in CA-immunosuppressed mice, even after prior antiviral therapy with oseltamivir. In summary, our model recapitulates key clinical features of IAPA and provides a robust preclinical platform to study the pathogenesis and treatment of IAPA.

Drosophila melanogaster as a Rapid and Reliable In Vivo Infection Model to Study the Emerging Yeast Pathogen Candida auris.

While mammalian models remain the gold standard to study invasive mycoses, mini-host invertebrate models have provided complementary platforms for explorative investigations of fungal pathogenesis, host-pathogen interplay, and antifungal therapy. Specifically, our group has established Toll-deficient Drosophila melanogaster flies as a facile and cost-effective model organism to study candidiasis, and we have recently expanded these studies to the emerging and frequently multidrug-resistant yeast pathogen Candida auris. Our proof-of-concept data suggest that fruit flies could hold a great promise for large-scale applications in antifungal drug discovery and the screening of C. auris (mutant) libraries with disparate pathogenic capacity. This chapter discusses the advantages and limitations of D. melanogaster to study C. auris candidiasis and provides a step-by-step guide for establishing and troubleshooting C. auris infection and antifungal treatment of Toll-deficient flies along with essential downstream readouts.

Blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 Immune Checkpoint Pathway Improves Infection Outcomes and Enhances Fungicidal Host Defense in a Murine Model of Invasive Pulmonary Mucormycosis.

Anecdotal clinical reports suggested a benefit of adjunct immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) to treat invasive mucormycosis. However, proof-of-concept data in animal models and mechanistic insights into the effects of ICIs on host defense against Mucorales are lacking. Therefore, we studied the effects of PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors (4 doses of 250 µg/kg) on outcomes and immunopathology of invasive pulmonary mucormycosis (IPM) in cyclophosphamide- and cortisone acetate-immunosuppressed mice. Rhizopus arrhizus-infected mice receiving either of the ICI treatments had significantly improved survival, less morbidity, and lower fungal burden compared to isotype-treated infected mice. While early improvement of morbidity/mortality was comparable between the ICI treatments, anti-PD-L1 provided more consistent sustained protection through day 7 post-infection than anti-PD-1. Both ICIs enhanced the fungicidal activity of ex-vivo splenocytes and effectively counteracted T-cell exhaustion; however, macrophages of ICI-treated mice showed compensatory upregulation of other checkpoint markers. Anti-PD-1 elicited stronger pulmonary release of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines than anti-PD-L1, but also induced cytokines associated with potentially unfavorable type 2 T-helper-cell and regulatory T-cell responses. Although no signs of hyperinflammatory toxicity were observed, mice with IPM receiving ICIs, particularly anti-PD-1, had elevated serum levels of IL-6, a cytokine linked to ICI toxicities. Altogether, inhibition of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway improved clinical outcomes of IPM in immunosuppressed mice, even without concomitant antifungals. PD-L1 inhibition yielded more favorable immune responses and more consistent protection from IPM-associated morbidity and mortality than PD-1 blockade. Future dose-effect studies are needed to define the "sweet spot" between ICI-induced augmentation of antifungal immunity and potential immunotoxicities.

Candida auris Bloodstream Infection Induces Upregulation of the PD-1/PD-L1 Immune Checkpoint Pathway in an Immunocompetent Mouse Model.

Candida auris is a globally spreading yeast pathogen causing bloodstream infections with high mortality in critically ill patients. The inherent antifungal drug resistance of most C. auris isolates and threat of multidrug-resistant strains create a need for adjunct immunotherapeutic strategies. While C. albicans candidemia was shown to induce immune paralysis and activation of inhibitory immune checkpoints, in vivo data on host responses to C. auris bloodstream infection are lacking as is an immunocompetent murine infection model to study the immunopathology and immunotherapy of C. auris sepsis. Therefore, herein, we developed an immunocompetent C. auris sepsis model by intravenously infecting C57BL/6 mice with 1.5 × 108 to 8 × 108 yeast cells of aggregate-forming (AR-0384) and nonaggregative (AR-0381) C. auris reference isolates. Both isolates caused reproducible, inoculum-dependent increasing morbidity, mortality, and fungal burden in kidney tissue. Notably, morbidity and mortality outcomes were partially decoupled from fungal burden, suggesting a role of additional modulators of disease severity such as host immune responses. Flow cytometric analyses of splenic immune cells revealed significant upregulation of the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) on T cells and its ligand PD-L1 on macrophages from mice infected with C. auris AR-0384 compared to uninfected mice. PD-L1 expression on macrophages from AR-0384-infected mice strongly correlated with fungal tissue burden (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient [ρ] = 0.95). Altogether, our findings suggest that C. auris sepsis promotes a suppressive immune phenotype through PD-1/PD-L1 induction, supporting further exploration of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade as an immunotherapeutic strategy to mitigate C. auris candidiasis. IMPORTANCE Health authorities consider Candida auris to be one of the most serious emerging nosocomial pathogens due to its transmissibility, resistance to disinfection procedures, and frequent antifungal drug resistance. The frequency of multidrug-resistant C. auris isolates necessitates the development of novel therapeutic platforms, including immunotherapy. However, in vivo data on host interactions with C. auris are scarce, compounded by the lack of reliable immunocompetent mammalian models of C. auris candidemia. Herein, we describe a C. auris sepsis model in immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice and demonstrate reproducible and inoculum-dependent acute infection with both aggregate-forming and nonaggregative reference isolates from different clades. Furthermore, we show that C. auris sepsis induces upregulation of the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint pathway in infected mice, raising the potential of a therapeutic benefit of immune checkpoint blockade. Our immunocompetent model of C. auris sepsis could provide a facile preclinical platform to thoroughly investigate immune checkpoint blockade and combination therapy with antifungals.

EGF-mediated suppression of cell extrusion during mucosal damage attenuates opportunistic fungal invasion.

Severe and often fatal opportunistic fungal infections arise frequently following mucosal damage caused by trauma or cytotoxic chemotherapy. Interaction of fungal pathogens with epithelial cells that comprise mucosae is a key early event associated with invasion, and, therefore, enhancing epithelial defense mechanisms may mitigate infection. Here, we establish a model of mold and yeast infection mediated by inducible epithelial cell loss in larval zebrafish. Epithelial cell loss by extrusion promotes exposure of laminin associated with increased fungal attachment, invasion, and larval lethality, whereas fungi defective in adherence or filamentation have reduced virulence. Transcriptional profiling identifies significant upregulation of the epidermal growth factor receptor ligand epigen (EPGN) upon mucosal damage. Treatment with recombinant human EPGN suppresses epithelial cell extrusion, leading to reduced fungal invasion and significantly enhanced survival. These data support the concept of augmenting epithelial restorative capacity to attenuate pathogenic invasion of fungi associated with human disease.

Pharmacological serum concentrations of epinephrine and norepinephrine do not affect growth rate, morphogenesis, stress tolerance, and virulence of Candida albicans.

Vasopressors are frequently given in hemodynamically unstable patients with severe Candida sepsis. While catecholamines can aggravate sepsis-induced immune dysfunction and modulate bacterial virulence traits, their impact on fungal pathogenicity is poorly understood. Using IncuCyte time-lapse microscopy and a fruit fly candidiasis model, we studied growth rates, morphogenesis, stress tolerance, and virulence of C. albicans cocultured with epinephrine and norepinephrine. We found that pharmacologically attainable catecholamine serum concentrations caused minimal changes to in vitro growth kinetics, filamentation, and fungal resistance to thermal or oxidative stress. Similarly, exposure of C. albicans to catecholamines did not alter the survival of infected flies.

Live imaging and quantitative analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus growth and morphology during inter-microbial interaction with Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) and Aspergillus fumigatus (AF) chronically colonize the airways of patients with cystic fibrosis or chronic immunosuppression and mutually affect each other's pathogenesis. Here, we evaluated IncuCyte time-lapse imaging and NeuroTrackTM (NT) analysis (Wurster et al., 2019, mBio) as a toolbox to study mycelial expansion and morphogenesis of AF during interaction with PA. Co-incubation of AF with supernatant filtrates of wild-type (WT) PA strains strongly inhibited hyphal growth and branching. Consonant with prior metabolic studies, pyoverdine-deficient PA mutants had significantly attenuated inhibitory capacity. Accordingly, purified PA products pyoverdine and pyocyanin suppressed mycelial expansion of AF in a concentration-dependent way. Using fluorescence-guided tracking of GFP-AF293 mycelia during co-culture with live WT PA cells, we found significant inoculum-dependent mycelial growth inhibition and robust precision of the NT algorithm. Collectively, our experiments position IncuCyte NT as an efficient platform for longitudinal analysis of fungal growth and morphogenesis during bacterial co-infection.

Tornadic Shear Stress Induces a Transient, Calcineurin-Dependent Hypervirulent Phenotype in Mucorales Molds.

Trauma-related necrotizing myocutaneous mucormycosis (NMM) has a high morbidity and mortality in victims of combat-related injuries, geometeorological disasters, and severe burns. Inspired by the observation that several recent clusters of NMM have been associated with extreme mechanical forces (e.g., during tornados), we studied the impact of mechanical stress on Mucoralean biology and virulence in a Drosophila melanogaster infection model. In contrast to other experimental procedures to exert mechanical stress, tornadic shear challenge (TSC) by magnetic stirring induced a hypervirulent phenotype in several clinically relevant Mucorales species but not in Aspergillus or Fusarium Whereas fungal growth rates, morphogenesis, and susceptibility to noxious environments or phagocytes were not altered by TSC, soluble factors released in the supernatant of shear-challenged R. arrhizus spores rendered static spores hypervirulent. Consistent with a rapid decay of TSC-induced hypervirulence, minimal transcriptional changes were revealed by comparative RNA sequencing analysis of static and shear-challenged Rhizopus arrhizus However, inhibition of the calcineurin/heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) stress response circuitry by cyclosporine and tanespimycin abrogated the increased pathogenicity of R. arrhizus spores following TSC. Similarly, calcineurin loss-of-function mutants of Mucor circinelloides displayed no increased virulence capacity in flies after undergoing TSC. Collectively, these results establish that TSC induces hypervirulence specifically in Mucorales and point out the calcineurin/hsp90 pathway as a key orchestrator of this phenotype. Our findings invite future studies of topical calcineurin inhibitor treatment of wounds as an adjunct mitigation strategy for NMM following high-energy trauma.IMPORTANCE Given the limited efficacy of current medical treatments in trauma-related necrotizing mucormycosis, there is a dire need to better understand the Mucoralean pathophysiology in order to develop novel strategies to counteract fungal tissue invasion following severe trauma. Here, we describe that tornadic shear stress challenge transiently induces a hypervirulent phenotype in various pathogenic Mucorales species but not in other molds known to cause wound infections. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of calcineurin signaling abrogated hypervirulence in shear stress-challenged Mucorales, encouraging further evaluation of (topical) calcineurin inhibitors to improve therapeutic outcomes of NMM after combat-related blast injuries or violent storms.

Protective Activity of Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 Blockade and Synergy With Caspofungin in a Murine Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis Model.

Pharmacological immune checkpoint blockade has revolutionized oncological therapies, and its remarkable success has sparked interest in expanding checkpoint inhibitor therapy in infectious diseases. Herein, we evaluated the efficacy of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) blockade in a murine invasive pulmonary aspergillosis model. We found that, compared with isotype-treated infected control mice, anti-PD-1-treated mice had improved survival, reduced fungal burden, increased lung concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines and neutrophil-attracting chemokines, and enhanced pulmonary leukocyte accumulation. Furthermore, combined treatment with anti-PD-1 and caspofungin resulted in a significant survival benefit compared with caspofungin or anti-PD-1 therapy alone, indicating a synergistic effect between PD-1 inhibitors and immunomodulatory antifungal agents.

Comparative in vitro pharmacodynamic analysis of isavuconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole against clinical isolates of aspergillosis, mucormycosis, fusariosis, and phaeohyphomycosis.

We compared the in vitro pharmacodynamics of isavuconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole against 92 clinical isolates from documented cases of invasive aspergillosis, mucormycosis, fusariosis, and phaeohyphomycosis. Whereas inhibitory and fungicidal concentrations of these triazoles were predictably similar with the exception of Mucorales, isavuconazole appeared to have improved pharmacodynamics against Fusarium solani.

Drosophila melanogaster as a model to study virulence and azole treatment of the emerging pathogen Candida auris.

OBJECTIVES: Candida auris is an emerging, often MDR, yeast pathogen. Efficient animal models are needed to study its pathogenicity and treatment. Therefore, we developed a C. auris fruit fly infection model. METHODS: TollI-RXA/Tollr632 female flies were infected with 10 different C. auris strains from the CDC Antimicrobial Resistance bank panel. We used three clinical Candida albicans strains as controls. For drug protection assays, fly survival was assessed along with measurement of fungal burden (cfu/g tissue) and histopathology in C. auris-infected flies fed with fluconazole- or posaconazole-containing food. RESULTS: Despite slower in vitro growth, all 10 C. auris isolates caused significantly greater mortality than C. albicans in infected flies, with >80% of C. auris-infected flies dying by day 7 post-infection (versus 67% with C. albicans, P < 0.001-0.005). Comparison of C. auris isolates from different geographical clades revealed more rapid in vitro growth of South American isolates and greater virulence in infected flies, whereas the aggregative capacity of C. auris strains had minimal impact on their growth and pathogenicity. Survival protection and decreased fungal burden of fluconazole- or posaconazole-fed flies infected with two C. auris strains were in line with the isolates' disparate in vitro azole susceptibility. High reproducibility of survival curves for both non-treated and antifungal-treated infected flies was seen, with coefficients of variation of 0.00-0.31 for 7 day mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Toll-deficient flies could provide a fast, reliable and inexpensive model to study pathogenesis and drug activity in C. auris candidiasis.

Live Monitoring and Analysis of Fungal Growth, Viability, and Mycelial Morphology Using the IncuCyte NeuroTrack Processing Module.

Efficient live-imaging methods are pivotal to understand fungal morphogenesis, especially as it relates to interactions with host immune cells and mechanisms of antifungal drugs. Due to the notable similarities in growth patterns of neuronal cells and mycelial networks, we sought to repurpose the NeuroTrack (NT) processing module of the IncuCyte time-lapse microscopy system as a tool to quantify mycelial growth and branching of pathogenic fungi. We showed the robustness of NT analysis to study Candida albicans and five different molds and confirmed established characteristics of mycelial growth kinetics. We also documented high intra- and interassay reproducibility of the NT module for a spectrum of spore inocula and culture periods. Using GFP-expressing Aspergillus fumigatus and Rhizopus arrhizus, the feasibility of fluorescence-based NT analysis was validated. In addition, we performed proof-of-concept experiments of NT analysis for several translational applications such as studying the morphogenesis of a filamentation-defective C. albicans mutant, the effects of different classes of antifungals (polyenes, azoles, and echinocandins), and coculture with host immune cells. High accuracy was found, even at high immune cell-to-fungus ratios or in the presence of fungal debris. For antifungal efficacy studies, addition of a cytotoxicity dye further refined IncuCyte-based analysis, facilitating real-time determination of fungistatic and fungicidal activity in a single assay. Complementing conventional MIC-based assays, NT analysis is an appealing method to study fungal morphogenesis and viability in the context of antifungal compound screening and evaluation of novel immune therapeutics.IMPORTANCE Pathogenic fungi remain a major cause of infectious complications in immunocompromised patients. Microscopic techniques are crucial for our understanding of fungal biology, host-pathogen interaction, and the pleiotropic effects of antifungal drugs on fungal cell growth and morphogenesis. Taking advantage of the morphological similarities of neuronal cell networks and mycelial growth patterns, we employed the IncuCyte time-lapse microscopy system and its NeuroTrack image analysis software package to study growth and branching of a variety of pathogenic yeasts and molds. Using optimized image processing definitions, we validated IncuCyte NeuroTrack analysis as a reliable and efficient tool for translational applications such as antifungal efficacy evaluation and coculture with host immune effector cells. Hence, the IncuCyte system and its NeuroTrack module provide an appealing platform for efficient in vitro studies of antifungal compounds and immunotherapeutic strategies in medical mycology.

A murine model of cutaneous aspergillosis for evaluation of biomaterials-based local delivery therapies.

Cutaneous fungal infection is a challenging condition to treat that primarily afflicts immunocompromised patients. Local antifungal therapy may permit the delivery of high concentrations of antifungals directly to wounds while minimizing systemic toxicities. However, the field currently lacks suitable in vivo models. Therefore, a large cutaneous wound was created in immunosuppressed mice and inoculated with Aspergillus fumigatus. We fabricated biodegradable polymer microparticles (MPs) that were capable of locally delivering antifungal and characterized in vitro release kinetics. We compared wound bed size, fungal burden, and histological presence of fungi in mice treated with antifungal-loaded MPs. Mice with a cutaneous defect but no infection, mice with infected cutaneous defect but no treatment, and infected mice treated with blank MPs were used as controls. Infection of large wounds inhibited healing and resulted in tissue invasion in an inoculum-dependent manner. MPs were capable of releasing antifungals at concentrations above A. fumigatus Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) for at least 6 days. Wounds treated with MPs had significantly decreased size compared with no treatment (64.2% vs. 19.4% wound reduction, p = 0.002) and were not significantly different from uninfected controls (64.2% vs. 58.1%, p = 0.497). This murine model may serve to better understand cutaneous fungal infection and evaluate local biomaterials-based therapies. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 107A: 1867-1874, 2019.

Preexposure to Isavuconazole Increases the Virulence of Mucorales but Not Aspergillus fumigatus in a Drosophila melanogaster Infection Model.

Breakthrough mucormycosis in patients receiving isavuconazole prophylaxis or therapy has been reported. We compared the impact of isavuconazole and voriconazole exposure on the virulence of clinical isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus and different Mucorales species in a Drosophila melanogaster infection model. In contrast to A. fumigatus, a hypervirulent phenotype was found in all tested Mucorales upon preexposure to either voriconazole or isavuconazole. These findings may contribute to the explanation of breakthrough mucormycosis in isavuconazole-treated patients.

Econazole-releasing porous space maintainers for fungal periprosthetic joint infection.

While antibiotic-eluting polymethylmethacrylate space maintainers have shown efficacy in the treatment of bacterial periprosthetic joint infection and osteomyelitis, antifungal-eluting space maintainers are associated with greater limitations for treatment of fungal musculoskeletal infections including limited elution concentration and duration. In this study, we have designed a porous econazole-eluting space maintainer capable of greater inhibition of fungal growth than traditional solid space maintainers. The eluted econazole demonstrated bioactivity in a concentration-dependent manner against the most common species responsible for fungal periprosthetic joint infection as well as staphylococci. Lastly, these porous space maintainers retain compressive mechanical properties appropriate to maintain space before definitive repair of the joint or bony defect.

Changes in In Vitro Susceptibility Patterns of Aspergillus to Triazoles and Correlation With Aspergillosis Outcome in a Tertiary Care Cancer Center, 1999-2015.

BACKGROUND: Azole-resistant aspergillosis in high-risk patients with hematological malignancy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is a cause of concern. METHODS: We examined changes over time in triazole minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 290 sequential Aspergillus isolates recovered from respiratory sources during 1999-2002 (before introduction of the Aspergillus-potent triazoles voriconazole and posaconazole) and 2003-2015 at MD Anderson Cancer Center. We also tested for polymorphisms in ergosterol biosynthetic genes (cyp51A, erg3C, erg1) in the 37 Aspergillus fumigatus isolates isolated from both periods that had non-wild-type (WT) MICs. For the 107 patients with hematologic cancer and/or HSCT with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, we correlated in vitro susceptibility with 42-day mortality. RESULTS: Non-WT MICs were found in 37 (13%) isolates and was only low level (MIC <8 mg/L) in all isolates. Higher-triazole MICs were more frequent in the second period and were Aspergillus-species specific, and only encountered in A. fumigatus. No polymorphisms in cyp51A, erg3C, erg1 genes were identified. There was no correlation between in vitro MICs with 42-day mortality in patients with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, irrespective of antifungal treatment. Asian race (odds ratio [OR], 20.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.5-173.5; P = .005) and azole exposure in the prior 3 months (OR, 9.6; 95% CI, 1.9-48.5; P = .006) were associated with azole resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Non-WT azole MICs in Aspergillus are increasing and this is associated with prior azole exposure in patients with hematologic cancer or HSCT. However, no correlation of MIC with outcome of aspergillosis was found in our patient cohort.

Pharmacological Blockade of the Chemokine Receptor CCR1 Protects Mice from Systemic Candidiasis of Hematogenous Origin.

Systemic candidiasis is a leading cause of nosocomial bloodstream infection with a high mortality rate despite treatment. Immune-based strategies are needed to improve outcomes. We previously reported that genetic deficiency in the chemokine receptor CCR1 improves survival and ameliorates tissue damage in Candida-infected mice. Here, we found that treatment of immunocompetent Candida-infected mice with the CCR1-selective antagonist BL5923 improves survival, decreases the kidney fungal burden, and protects from renal tissue injury.

Statin Concentrations Below the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration Attenuate the Virulence of Rhizopus oryzae.

BACKGROUND: Mucormycosis is a destructive invasive mold infection afflicting patients with diabetes and hematologic malignancies. Patients with diabetes are often treated with statins, which have been shown to have antifungal properties. We sought to examine the effects of statins on Rhizopus oryzae, a common cause of mucormycosis. METHODS: Clinical strains of R. oryzae were exposed to lovastatin, atorvastatin, and simvastatin and the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined. R. oryzae germination, DNA fragmentation, susceptibility to oxidative stress, and ability to damage endothelial cells were assessed. We further investigated the impact of exposure to lovastatin on the virulence of R. oryzae RESULTS: All statins had MICs of >64 µg/mL against R. oryzae Exposure of R. oryzae to statins decreased germling formation, induced DNA fragmentation, and attenuated damage to endothelial cells independently of the expression of GRP78 and CotH. Additionally, R. oryzae exposed to lovastatin showed macroscopic loss of melanin, yielded increased susceptibility to the oxidative agent peroxide, and had attenuated virulence in both fly and mouse models of mucormycosis. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure of R. oryzae to statins at concentrations below their MICs decreased virulence both in vitro and in vivo. Further investigation is warranted into the use of statins as adjunctive therapy in mucormycosis.

Effect of Preexposure to Triazoles on Susceptibility and Virulence of Rhizopus oryzae.

Triazole prophylaxis has become the norm in patients with hematological malignancies. Breakthrough infections caused by Mucorales during triazole prophylaxis remain a challenging problem. We found that preexposure of Rhizopus oryzae to antifungal triazoles (fluconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and itraconazole) did not modify the in vitro susceptibility of Rhizopus oryzae to posaconazole. In contrast, preexposure of Rhizopus to triazoles was associated with the enhanced in vitro susceptibility of R. oryzae to amphotericin B. Preexposure to posaconazole did not alter the virulence of R. oryzae in the fly model of mucormycosis.