La relación entre las emociones y las estrategias de afrontamiento ante la reprobación en estudiantes universitarios / The relationship between emotions and coping strategies in university students after a failing grade

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar las diferencias (hombres y mujeres) y la relación entre emociones y las estrategias de afrontamiento en estudiantes universitarios cuando reprueban un examen al inicio del ciclo escolar. Método: Estudio no experimental de tipo transversal con múltiples variables continuas. Participaron 1,774 universitarios mexicanos (54 % mujeres y 46 % hombres), media de edad 20.72 (DE = 2.27). Se utilizaron dos instrumentos, a saber, Escala de emociones cuando repruebas: desagrado, culpa, vergüenza, tristeza, miedo, frustración, enojo, angustia, indiferencia (α = .94); y Estrategias de afrontamiento cuando repruebas: gritar, culpar a otro, reflexionar, reprobar el examen, buscar asesoría, evitar hablar del tema, evitar pensar en eso, fingir estar bien, estar en redes sociales, escuchar música, salir con amigos, salir solo(a), contarle a mi familia (α = .88). Resultados: Se obtuvieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre mujeres y hombres en todos los factores de la intensidad de las emociones cuando repruebas. En cuanto a las estrategias de afrontamiento más utilizadas tanto para las mujeres (M = 2.96, DE = 0.66) como en los hombres (M = 2.69, DE = 0.67) fueron las Asertivas y de autoconstructivas y las menos las Agresivo-defensivas; en cuanto a las estrategias de Evasión si bien no mostraron diferencias entre hombres (M = 2.00; DE = 0.78) y mujeres (M = 2.11; DE = 0.84), sin embargo, en las correlaciones de la muestra en general fueron las que tuvieron las puntuaciones más altas con las emociones (r = .53**), seguidas de las Búsqueda de soluciones (r = .38**) y Asertivas y autocríticas (r = .42**). Al realizar los análisis contrastados entre mujeres (r = 50**) hombres (r = .56**) nuevamente las estrategias de Evasión fueron las que más correlacionaron con los factores emocionales (r = .50**). Conclusiones: Si bien se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres en la intensidad de las emociones, y fueron ellas quienes reportaron una mayor intensidad, no se encontraron diferencias en las estrategias de afrontamiento agresivo-defensivas, evasión y búsqueda de apoyo; el solicitar ayuda es un indicativo de que son capaces de reconocer que tienen un problema que sobrepasa sus habilidades en ese momento. Conocer qué emociones experimentan y qué estrategias de afrontamiento utilizan los universitarios cuando reprueban, proporciona al personal encargado de apoyarlos el poder implementar acciones que les ayuden a afianzar y darle continuidad a su trayectoria académica. Es importante apoyar a los estudiantes, ya que las estrategias de afrontamiento que mostraron mayores correlaciones con las emociones fueron las de evasión, lo cual puede traerles consecuencias negativas como el pasar de reprobar un examen a reprobar la asignatura.

Abstract Objective: To identify the differences (in men and women) and the relationship between emotions and coping strategies in university students when they fail an exam at the beginning of the school year. Method: The study was non-experimental and cross-sectional with multiple continuous variables, in which 1,774 Mexican university students participated (54 % women and 46 % men) of mean age 20.72 years (SD = 2.27). Two tools were used. The first one was the "Emotions scale when you fail": displeasure, guilt, shame, sadness, fear, frustration, anger, anguish, and indifference (α = 0.94), and the second tool was "Coping strategies when you fail": yelling, blaming someone else, reflecting, failing the exam, seeking advice, avoiding talking about it, avoiding thinking about it, pretending to be fine, using social media, listening to music, hanging out with friends, going out alone, talking to family (α = 0.88). Results: In the tool "Emotions scale when you fail," significant differences were found between men and women in every factor and its intensity. The most commonly used coping strategies for women (M = 2.96, SD = 0.66) and men (M = 2.69, SD = 0.67) were assertive and self-constructive, and the least commonly used were aggressive-defensive. As for the evasion strategies, although they did not show differences between men (M = 2.00, SD = 0.78) and women (M = 2.11; SD = 0.84) in the general sample correlations, those strategies were the ones that had the highest scores with emotions (r = 0.53 **), followed by the search for solutions (r = 0.38 **) and assertive and self-critical (r = 0.42 **). When performing the contrast analysis among women (r = 50 **) and men (r = 0.56 **), evasion strategies were the ones that showed the highest correlation with emotional factors (r = 0.50 **). Conclusions: Although statistically significant differences were found between men and women in emotion intensity, women being the ones that showed greater intensity, no differences were found in aggressive-defensive coping strategies, evasion, and support seeking. Requesting help is an indicator that women are (1) able to recognize that they have a problem that is currently beyond their abilities to solve independently and (2) able to ask for help in order to solve problems. Knowing which emotions university students experience and the coping strategies they use when they fail, gives the support staff in charge a chance to implement actions that help strengthen them and move forward with their academic journey. It is important to support students, because the coping strategies that showed the highest correlation with emotions were the evasion strategies, which can have further negative consequences such as going from failing an exam to failing the subject.

Propiedades Psicométricas de la Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes / Psychometric Properties of the Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents

Resumen Objetivo: Validar la Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes, la cual incluye tres factores: venganza (4 ítems, por ej., "Haré sufrir a la otra persona"), pensamientos de insulto o peyorativos (5 ítems, por ej., "Es un estúpido") y pensamientos de control (10 ítems, por ej., "Tendré paciencia"). Método: La muestra fue de 522 adolescentes mexicanos de escuela pública (M de edad = 15,92, DE =0,90); 213 hombres y 309 mujeres seleccionados de forma no aleatoria. Los instrumentos fueron: la Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes, el Inventario Multicultural de Expresión de la Cólera y la Hostilidad (ML-STAXI) para Adolescentes Mexicanos y la Escala de Expresión del Enojo con Agresión Física. El diseño del estudio fue instrumental. Resultados: Se encontró, por medio de análisis factorial confirmatorio que el modelo de tres factores tuvo buen ajuste (CFI = .912, SRMR = .046, RMSEA = .076). La confiabilidad (Alfa de Cronbach) fue aceptable: .78, .86 y .92, respectivamente. La validez de constructo fue satisfactoria, dado que la escala fue útil para diferenciar a personas de alto y bajo puntaje en variables de enojo, control del enojo, expresión del enojo y agresión física hacia las personas y hacia los objetos. Hubo leve diferencia por sexo en una de las tres escalas, donde las mujeres tuvieron más pensamientos peyorativos que los hombres. Conclusión: La Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes es una opción confiable y con validez de constructo. Representa un punto de partida para la investigación, evaluación y tratamiento de adolescentes con problemas en el control del enojo.

Abstract Objective: The goal of the study was to validate an Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents, which has three factors: revenge (4 items, e.g., "I will make the other person suffer"), insulting or pejorative thoughts (5 items, e.g., "S/he is stupid"), and thoughts of control (10 items, e.g., "I will be patient"). Method: The sample had 522 adolescents (M age = 15.92, SD = 0.90); 213 men, and 309 women from a public school; they were recruited through intentional non-random sampling. The participants answered three instruments: The Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents, The Multicultural Inventory of Anger and Hostility (ML-STAXI) for Mexican Adolescents, and the Scale of Anger Expression with Physical Aggression. The design of the study is instrumental. Results: It was found, through confirmatory factor analysis and modification indexes, that the 3-factor model showed good fit (CFI = .912, SRMR = .046, RMSEA = .076). The reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) was acceptable: .78, .86, and .92, respectively. Construct validity was satisfactory, since the scale was useful to distinguish between individuals with high and low scores in variables of anger, anger control, anger expression, and physical aggression toward people and toward objects. A gender difference was found in one of the three scales; women had more pejorative thoughts than men. Conclusion: The Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents is a reliable option with construct validity. It represents a starting point for research, assessment, and treatment of adolescents with anger problems.

Psychometric Properties and Development of a Scale Designed to Evaluate the Potential of Predatory Violent Behavior.

The objective of this study was to develop and determine the psychometric properties of an instrument designed to detect traits and behavior that are associated with predatory violent behavior, which is defined as a determined, planned, controlled, and proactive aggression. The sample was comprised of 564 students, mostly in their last year of high school, or in their first year of college. The initial instrument had 78 items, ultimately resulting in 13 with good internal consistency (α = 0.825). Factor analysis showed four factors: anger-in, appeal for weapons, suicidal ideation, and the tendency to take justice into one's own hands. Said factors showed significant correlations of convergent validity. Data shown here allows inferring that the instrument is a novel and concise tool that evaluates and detects the potential of predatory violent behavior.

Relationship between Assertiveness, Academic Performance and Anxiety in a Sample of Mexican Students in Secondary Education / Relação entre Assertividade, Desempenho Acadêmico e Ansiedade numa Amostra de Estudantes Mexicanos de Secundária / Relación entre asertividad, rendimiento académico y ansiedad en una muestra de estudiantes mexicanos de secundaria

Abstract Social skills in their most advanced form are aimed at solving any immediate problems of a situation while minimizing the likelihood of future problems. This is also known as assertiveness, a variable that can be related to academic performance and the level of anxiety in adolescents. This research is descriptive and correlational with the aim of knowing the relationship between level of assertiveness, academic performance and various components of anxiety in a sample of Mexican high school or secondary students, as well as exploring possible differences related to sex. This study uses two instruments: Children's Assertive Behavior Scale (CABS) and the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale™. The grade point average (GPA) was taken as an indicator of academic performance. The participants were 535 adolescents (54.6 % female, 45.4 % male), with a mean age of13.01 years (std= .74, range 11 to 17 years). Cluster sampling and convenience sampling were used, encompassing all students in the first two grades of a public or state school in the state of Hidalgo. The results indicate sex differences in all study variables. We also found statistically significant correlations between assertiveness and anxiety (r= .182, p <.01), between academic performance and assertiveness (r= -.203, p <.01), and between academic performance and the social concerns component of the anxiety scale (r= -.124, p <.01), although these were low in magnitude.

Resumo As habilidades sociais, em sua forma mais avançada, estão voltadas a resolver problemas imediatos da situação enquanto diminuem a probabilidade de futuros problemas. Isso também é conhecido pelo termo assertividade, variável que pode estabelecer relação com o desempenho acadêmico e com o nível de ansiedade em adolescentes. Esta pesquisa foi descritiva e correlacional, teve como objetivo conhecer a relação entre o nível de assertividade, o desempenho acadêmico e diversos componentes da ansiedade numa amostra de estudantes mexicanos de secundária (equivalente ao ensino médio no Brasil) , bem como explorar possíveis diferenças por sexo. Utilizaram-se dois instrumentos: Escala de Comportamento Assertivo para Crianças e Escala de Ansiedade Manifestada em Crianças (revisada); a média de qualificações foi tomada como indicador de desempenho acadêmico. A amostra foi composta por 535 adolescentes (54.6 % mulheres, 45.4 % homens), com uma média de idade de 13.01 anos (DP =.74, na faixa dos 11 aos 17 anos). A amostra foi por conglomerados e conveniência, abrangendo a totalidade dos estudantes dos primeiros anos escolares de uma escola pública do estado de Hidalgo. Os resultados indicam diferenças por sexo em todas as variáveis de estudo. Também se encontraram correlações estatisticamente significativas: entre assertividade e ansiedade (r=.182, p<.01), entre desempenho acadêmico e assertividade (r= -.203, p<.01), e entre o desempenho acadêmico e o componente preocupações sociais da escala de ansiedade (r= -.124, p<.01), embora estas tenham sido de baixa magnitude.

Resumen Las habilidades sociales, en su forma más avanzada, están dirigidas a resolver problemas inmediatos de la situación, a la vez que minimizan la probabilidad de futuros problemas. Específicamente, la habilidad reconocida como asertividad puede guardar una relación con el rendimiento académico y el nivel de ansiedad en adolescentes. Teniendo esto en cuenta, el objetivo de la presente investigación es conocer la relación entre el nivel de asertividad, el rendimiento académico y diversos componentes de la ansiedad en una muestra de estudiantes mexicanos de secundaria, así como explorar posibles diferencias por sexo. Para esto, se hace un análisis descriptivo y correlacional, donde se utilizan dos instrumentos: la Escala de Conducta Asertiva para Niños y la Escala de Ansiedad Manifiesta en Niños (revisada); además del promedio de calificaciones como indicador del rendimiento académico. Se utilizó una muestra de 535 adolescentes (54.6 % mujeres y 45.4 % hombres), con un promedio de edad de 13.01 años (DE = .74, rango de 11 a 17 años). Se realizó un muestreo por conglomerados y conveniencia, donde se abarcó la totalidad de los alumnos de los dos primeros grados escolares de una escuela pública del Estado de Hidalgo. Los resultados indican diferencias por sexo en todas las variables de estudio y correlaciones estadísticamente significativas entre asertividad y ansiedad (r = .182,p < .01), entre rendimiento académico y asertividad (r = -.203,p < .01), y entre el rendimiento académico y el componente preocupaciones sociales de la escala de ansiedad (r = -.124, p < .01), aunque estas últimas fueron de baja magnitud.

High and Low Trait Anger, Angry Thoughts, and the Recognition of Anger Problems.

This research had two goals: (1) it tested hypotheses of the State-Trait Model of anger, and (2) it explored characteristics that may distinguish individuals with high trait anger who recognize problems with their anger from those who do not recognize anger problems. Regarding the first goal, findings supported three hypotheses tested. In particular, compared to those low in trait anger, individuals with high trait anger reported: (a) more intense anger (intensity hypothesis), p < .001, effect size (η(2)) = .109; (b) more thoughts involving pejorative labeling/denigration, p < .001, η(2) = .280, thoughts of revenge, p < .001, η(2) = .170, more outward, negative anger expression (anger-out), p < .001, η(2) = .229, and more physically aggressive expression, p < .001, η(2) = .046-.123, (aggression hypothesis); and (c) more anger suppression (anger-in), p < .001, η(2) = .231, and fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .001, η(2) = .088, and behavioral efforts to control angry feelings (anger control-in), p < .001, η(2) = .116, and behavior (anger control-out), p < .001, η(2) = .260 (reduced positive coping hypothesis). For the second goal we employed two types of individuals, both with high trait anger: those who identified anger as a personal problem and wanted help, and those who did not identify anger as a personal issue. As a result, compared to those who did not report anger problems, those who reported anger problems demonstrated a higher overall propensity to experience anger (i.e., higher trait anger), p < .01, η(2) = .028, greater anger suppression and harboring grudges (anger-in), p < .001, η(2) = .035, fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .05, η(2) = .015, and attempts to control their angry feelings (anger-control-in), p < .05, η(2) = .016, and behavior (anger-control-out), p < .001, η(2) = .054. Gender was not associated with trait anger or anger problem recognition. Findings were discussed in terms of State-Trait Theory and implications for anger interventions.

High and low trait anger, angry thoughts, and the recognition of anger problems

This research had two goals: (1) it tested hypotheses of the State-Trait Model of anger, and (2) it explored characteristics that may distinguish individuals with high trait anger who recognize problems with their anger from those who do not recognize anger problems. Regarding the first goal, findings supported three hypotheses tested. In particular, compared to those low in trait anger, individuals with high trait anger reported: (a) more intense anger (intensity hypothesis), p < .001, effect size (η2) = .109; (b) more thoughts involving pejorative labeling/denigration, p < .001, η2 = .280, thoughts of revenge, p < .001, η2 = .170, more outward, negative anger expression (anger-out), p < .001, η2 = .229, and more physically aggressive expression, p < .001, η2 = .046-.123, (aggression hypothesis); and (c) more anger suppression (anger-in), p < .001, η2 = .231, and fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .001, η2 = .088, and behavioral efforts to control angry feelings (anger control-in), p < .001, η2 = .116, and behavior (anger control-out), p < .001, η2 = .260 (reduced positive coping hypothesis). For the second goal we employed two types of individuals, both with high trait anger: those who identified anger as a personal problem and wanted help, and those who did not identify anger as a personal issue. As a result, compared to those who did not report anger problems, those who reported anger problems demonstrated a higher overall propensity to experience anger (i.e., higher trait anger), p < .01, η2 = .028, greater anger suppression and harboring grudges (anger-in), p < .001, η2 = .035, fewer thoughts of self-control, p < .05, η2 = .015, and attempts to control their angry feelings (anger-control-in), p < .05, η2 = .016, and behavior (anger-control-out), p < .001, η2 = .054. Gender was not associated with trait anger or anger problem recognition. Findings were discussed in terms of State-Trait Theory and implications for anger interventions (AU)

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High trait anger Mexican youth: characteristics, parental anger, and counseling needs.

This study compared three groups of Mexican youth: (1) high trait anger adolescents recognizing anger problems (HR); (2) high trait anger youth not reporting anger problems (HNR); and (3) low trait anger adolescents not reporting anger problems (LNR). The HR group was sizable, representing 21% of all students and 72% of high anger youth. Compared to LNR, high anger groups (HR and HNR) experienced more angry feelings, engaged in anger suppression (e.g., holding anger in and harboring grudges) and aggressive anger expression (e.g., urges to aggression, physical aggressive anger expression toward others and toward self and objects), and reported lower internal and external anger control (e.g., relaxing and controlling one's behavior when angry). High anger groups also reported greater trait anger in both parents than LNR, suggesting parent's anger is a risk factor for anger in adolescents. HR and HNR groups, however, did not differ on any variable. Findings for high anger groups supported the intensity, aggression, and reduced positive coping hypotheses of State-Trait Anger Theory. Findings were also discussed in terms of the counseling needs of high anger Mexican youth and State-Trait Theory.

High trait anger Mexican youth: characteristics, parental anger and counseling needs

This study compared three groups of Mexican youth: (1) high trait anger adolescents recognizing anger problems (HR); (2) high trait anger youth not reporting anger problems (HNR); and (3) low trait anger adolescents not reporting anger problems (LNR). The HR group was sizable, representing 21% of all students and 72% of high anger youth. Compared to LNR, high anger groups (HR and HNR) experienced more angry feelings, engaged in anger suppression (e.g., holding anger in and harboring grudges) and aggressive anger expression (e.g., urges to aggression, physical aggressive anger expression toward others and toward self and objects), and reported lower internal and external anger control (e.g., relaxing and controlling one’s behavior when angry). High anger groups also reported greater trait anger in both parents than LNR, suggesting parent’s anger is a risk factor for anger in adolescents. HR and HNR groups, however, did not differ on any variable. Findings for high anger groups supported the intensity, aggression, and reduced positive coping hypotheses of State-Trait Anger Theory. Findings were also discussed in terms of the counseling needs of high anger Mexican youth and State-Trait Theory (AU)

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Developing an Inventory to Measure Anger in Mexican Children / Desarrollo de un Inventario para la Medición de la Ira en Niños Mexicanos / Desenvolvimento de um Inventário para a Mediação da Ira em Crianças Mexicanas

Based on the state-trait model of anger (Spielberger, 1988, 1999), the aim was to develop a reliable and valid inventory to measure anger in Mexican children. Exploratory factor analyses on responses from 592 children (302 boys, 290 girls) (M=10.35 years old, SD=1.14) revealed four factors suggesting construct validity: 6-item state anger (e.g., "I am upset"), 5-item trait-temperament (e.g., "I get mad easily"), 7-item anger-out (e.g., "I fight with whoever made me mad"), and 12-item anger control (e.g., "I try to relax"). Alpha reliabilities were .76, .76, .73, and .88, respectively. Anger control correlated negatively with other factors, whereas other factors correlated positively with each other. The inventory also had concurrent validity with an instrument that measured physical aggression.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar un inventario válido y confiable para medir la ira en niños mexicanos, basado en el modelo estado-rasgo (Spielberger, 1988, 1999). Los resultados de análisis factoriales exploratorios de las respuestas de 592 niños, 302 niños y 290 niñas, (M=10.35 años y DE=1.14), revelaron cuatro factores que sugieren validez de constructo: 6 reactivos de ira estado (e. g. "Estoy molesto"), 5 reactivos de temperamento-rasgo (e. g. "Me enojo fácilmente"), 7 reactivos de ira-externa (e. g. "Me peleo con quien me hizo enojar") y 12 reactivos de control de la ira (e. g. "Intento relajarme"). Las confiabilidades alfa fueron .76, .76, .73 y .88, respectivamente. El inventario tuvo validez concurrente con un instrumento que midió agresión física.

Este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver um inventário válido e confiável para medir a ira em crianças mexicanas, baseado no modelo estado-traço (Spielberger, 1988, 1999). Os resultados de análises fatoriais exploratórias das respostas de 592 crianças, 302 meninos e 290 meninas (M=10.35 anos e DP=1.14), revelaram quatro fatores que sugerem validade de constructo: 6 reativos de ira estado (por exemplo "Estou bravo"); 5 reativos de temperamento-traço (por exemplo "Fico bravo facilmente"); 7 reativos de ira-externa (por exemplo "Eu brigo com quem me faz ficar bravo") e 12 reativos de controle da ira (por exemplo "Tento ficar calmo"). As confiabilidades alfa foram .76, .76, .73 e .88, respectivamente. O inventário teve validade concorrente com um instrumento que mediu agressão física.

The Impact of Perceived Therapist Characteristics on Patients Decision to Return or Not Return for More Sessions

The initial contact with the patient is a crucial element in determining whether he/she will return to therapy. Patients often make their first impressions of their therapists after the intake interview, and then decide if they will return (or not) for more sessions. However, the decision made by patients has not been fully explored with regard to the characteris- tics they perceived in their therapists. This study compared two groups of patients: Those who decided to return to sessions after the intake interview, and those who opted not to return. One hundred and seventy three patients (Mean age= 26.09 years, SD= 9.75) par- ticipated in the study. They responded to an instrument designed to assess the extent to which a patient perceives positive qualities in their therapist (e.g., expert, attractive, and trustworthy). As a result, at the end of the intake interview 141 patients decided to return (DR), and 32 decided not to return (DNR). DR patients perceived more positive qualities in their therapists and attended a greater number of sessions (Median= 10) compared to DNR patients, who attended less sessions (Median = 2). Sex of the patient not related to the decision to return after the intake interview (AU)

El contacto inicial con el paciente es importante para determinar si regresará a terapia. Después de la entrevista inicial los pacientes ya tienen una primera impresión de su tera- peuta, y entonces deciden si regresarán (o no) a más sesiones. Sin embargo, la decisión que toman los pacientes no ha sido ampliamente estudiada con respecto a las características que percibieron en sus terapeutas. Esta investigación comparó dos grupos de pacientes: los que deciden regresar versus los que deciden no regresar después de la entrevista inicial. Participaron 173 pacientes (Media edad= 26,09 años, DT= 9,75) que respondieron una escala para evaluar el grado en que percibieron a su terapeuta con características positivas (e.g., experto, atractivo y confiable). Como resultado, al final de la entrevista inicial 141 pacientes decidieron regresar (DR) y 32 decidieron no regresar (DNR). Los pacientes DR percibieron a su terapeuta con más características positivas y asistieron un mayor número de sesiones (Mediana= 10) en comparación con los pacientes DNR, quienes asistieron menos veces (Mediana= 2). El sexo del paciente no se relacionó con la decisión de regresar (AU)