S-allyl-cysteine triggers cytotoxic events in rat glioblastoma RG2 and C6 cells and improves the effect of temozolomide through the regulation of oxidative responses.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive form of cancer affecting the Central Nervous System (CNS) of thousands of people every year. Redox alterations have been shown to play a key role in the development and progression of these tumors as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) formation is involved in the modulation of several signaling pathways, transcription factors, and cytokine formation. The second-generation oral alkylating agent temozolomide (TMZ) is the first-line chemotherapeutic drug used to treat of GBM, though patients often develop primary and secondary resistance, reducing its efficacy. Antioxidants represent promising and potential coadjutant agents as they can reduce excessive ROS formation derived from chemo- and radiotherapy, while decreasing pharmacological resistance. S-allyl-cysteine (SAC) has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of several types of cancer cells, though its precise antiproliferative mechanisms remain poorly investigated. To date, SAC effects have been poorly explored in GBM cells. Here, we investigated the effects of SAC in vitro, either alone or in combination with TMZ, on several toxic and modulatory endpoints-including oxidative stress markers and transcriptional regulation-in two glioblastoma cell lines from rats, RG2 and C6, to elucidate some of the biochemical and cellular mechanisms underlying its antiproliferative properties. SAC (1-750 µM) decreased cell viability in both cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner, although C6 cells were more resistant to SAC at several of the tested concentrations. TMZ also produced a concentration-dependent effect, decreasing cell viability of both cell lines. In combination, SAC (1 µM or 100 µM) and TMZ (500 µM) enhanced the effects of each other. SAC also augmented the lipoperoxidative effect of TMZ and reduced cell antioxidant resistance in both cell lines by decreasing the TMZ-induced increase in the GSH/GSSG ratio. In RG2 and C6 cells, SAC per se had no effect on Nrf2/ARE binding activity, while in RG2 cells TMZ and the combination of SAC + TMZ decreased this activity. Our results demonstrate that SAC, alone or in combination with TMZ, exerts antitumor effects mediated by regulatory mechanisms of redox activity responses. SAC is also a safe drug for testing in other models as it produces non-toxic effects in primary astrocytes. Combined, these effects suggest that SAC affords antioxidant properties and potential antitumor efficacy against GBM.

Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic animals from Campeche, México, reveals virulent genotypes and a recombinant ROP5 allele.

Toxoplasma gondii has at least 318 genotypes distributed worldwide, and tropical regions usually have greater genetic diversity. Campeche is a state located in the southeastern region of México and has favourable climate conditions for the replication and dissemination of this protozoan, similar to those in South American countries where broad genetic diversity has been described. Thus, in this study, 4 T. gondii isolates were obtained from tissues of stray dogs and free-range chickens in Campeche, México, and were genotyped by Mn-PCR-RFLP with 10 typing markers (SAG1, altSAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1 and Apico) and 5 virulence markers (CS3, ROP16, ROP17, ROP18 and ROP5) to provide new information about the distribution and virulence prediction of T. gondii genotypes. Two isolates of T. gondii genotype #116 and 2 of genotype #38 were obtained from stray dogs and chickens, respectively. The parasite load found in these species was between <50 and more than 35 000 tachyzoites per mg of tissue. Virulence marker genotyping revealed a recombinant 1&3 ROP5 RFLP pattern in 2 ToxoDB #116 isolates with no prediction of virulence in a murine model, while in the 2 ToxoDB #38 isolates, the ROP18/ROP5 combination predicted high virulence. Considering all the typed markers, there is a predominance of type I and III alleles, as constantly reported for the isolates characterized in various regions of México. It is crucial to determine their phenotype to corroborate the genetic virulence profile of the T. gondii isolates obtained in this study.

Maternal anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies IgG2, IgG3 and IgG1 are markers of vertical transmission and clinical evolution of toxoplasmosis in the offspring.

Toxoplasma gondii can be transmitted vertically during pregnancy and may cause neurological, ocular, and even systemic damage to the offspring. Congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) can be diagnosed during gestation and/or after birth in the postnatal period. The timely diagnosis is highly relevant for efficient clinical management. The most common laboratory methods for diagnosing CT are based on Toxoplasma-specific humoral immune responses. However, these methods are of low sensitivity or specificity. In a previous study with a small number of cases, the comparison of anti-T. gondii IgG subclasses between mothers and their offspring showed promising results for CT diagnosis and prognosis. Thus, in this work, we analyzed specific IgG subclasses and IgA in 40 T. gondii-infected mothers and their children, of which 27 were congenitally infected and 13 uninfected. A higher frequency of anti-Toxoplasma IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, and IgA antibodies was observed in mothers and congenitally infected offspring. Of these, IgG2 or IgG3 were statistically the most conspicuous. In the CT group, maternal IgG3 antibodies were significantly associated with severe disease of the infants and IgG1 and IgG3 with disseminated disease. The results support that maternal anti-T. gondii IgG3, IgG2 and IgG1 are markers of congenital transmission and severity/spread of disease in the offspring.

A Proinflammatory Immune Response Might Determine Toxoplasma gondii Vertical Transmission and Severity of Clinical Features in Congenitally Infected Newborns.

Toxoplasma gondii is the etiological agent of toxoplasmosis. Mother-to-child transmission of this parasite can occur during pregnancy. Newborns with congenital toxoplasmosis may develop central nervous system impairment, with severity ranging from subclinical manifestations to death. A proinflammatory/regulated specific immune profile is crucial in the defense against the parasite; nevertheless, its role in the infected pregnant women and the congenitally infected offspring has been poorly explored, and there is still no consensus about its relation to parasite vertical transmission or to severity and dissemination in the congenitally infected newborns. This work aimed to characterize these relations by means of principal component and principal factor analyses. For this purpose, we determined the specific production of the four immunoglobulin G antibody subclasses, cytokines, and lymphocyte proliferation in the T. gondii-infected pregnant women-10 who transmitted the infection to their offspring and seven who did not-as well as in 11 newborns congenitally infected and grouped according to disease severity (five mild and six moderate/severe) and dissemination (four local and seven disseminated). We found that the immune response of nontransmitter women differed from that of the transmitters, the latter having a stronger proinflammatory response, supporting a previous report. We also found that newborns who developed moderate/severe disease presented higher levels of lymphocyte proliferation, particularly of CD8+ and CD19+ cells, a high proportion of tumor necrosis factor α producers, and reduced expression of the immune modulator transforming growth factor ß, as opposed to children who developed mild clinical complications. Our results suggest that a distinctive, not regulated, proinflammatory immune response might favor T. gondii vertical transmission and the development of severe clinical manifestations in congenitally infected newborns.

Maternal Immune Response During Pregnancy and Vertical Transmission in Human Toxoplasmosis.

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonosis distributed worldwide, caused by the ingestion of contaminated water/food with the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. If a pregnant woman is infected with this parasite, it may be transmitted to the fetus and produce ocular, neurological, or systemic damage with variable severity. The strength and profile of mother's immune response have been suggested as important factors involved in vertical transmission rate and severity of clinical outcome in the congenitally infected fetus. The aim of this work was to evaluate a possible relation between the mother's immune response during pregnancy and congenital transmission to the fetus. We obtained peripheral blood from T. gondii infected pregnant woman and tested it for anti T. gondii (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, and IgA) in serum. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated to analyze the in vitro effect of soluble T. gondii antigens on proliferation and production of cytokines. We found that IgG2-4 and IgA antibodies and lymphocytes proliferation, especially CD4+, CD8+, and CD19+ were positive in a higher proportion of cases in transmitter than in non-transmitter women. Furthermore, IgG2-3 and IgA anti-Toxoplasma antibody levels were higher in those mothers who transmitted the infection than in those who did not. Interestingly, a higher proportion of positive cases to IFN-γ and negatives to the immunoregulatory cytokine TGF-ß, were related to T. gondii vertical transmission. Our descriptive results are consistent with the paradoxical previous observations in murine models of congenital toxoplasmosis, which suggest that an increased immune response that protects the mothers from a disseminated or severe disease, and should protect the fetus from infection, is positively related to parasite transmission.

Diagnostic-test evaluation of immunoassays for anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies in a random sample of Mexican population.

INTRODUCTION: There are few articles on evaluation of Toxoplasma gondii serological tests. Besides, commercially available tests are not always useful and are expensive for studies in open population. The aim of this study was to evaluate in-house ELISA and western blot for IgG antibodies in a representative sample of people living in Mexico. METHODOLOGY: Three hundred and five serum samples were randomly selected from two national seroepidemiological survey banks; they were taken from men and women of all ages and from all areas of the country. ELISA cut-off was established using the mean plus three standard deviations of negative samples. Western blots were analysed by two experienced technicians and positivity was established according to the presence of at least three diagnostic bands. A commercial ELISA kit was used as a third test. Two reference standards were built up: one using concordant results of two assays leaving the evaluated test out and the other in which the evaluated test was included (IN) with at least two concordant results to define diagnosis. RESULTS: the lowest values of diagnostic parameters were obtained with the OUT reference standards: in-house ELISA had 96.9% sensitivity, 62.1% specificity, 49.6% PPV, 98.1% NPV and 71.8% accuracy, while western blot presented 81.8%, 89.7%, 84.0%, 88.2% and 86.6% values and the best kappa coefficient (0.72-0.82). CONCLUSIONS: The in-house ELISA is useful for screening people of Mexico, due to its high sensitivity, while western blot may be used to confirm diagnosis. These techniques might prove useful in other Latin American countries.

Endothelial cell invasion by Toxoplasma gondii: differences between cell types and parasite strains.

Toxoplasma gondii disseminates and causes congenital infection by invasion of the endothelial cells. The aim of this study was to analyze the ability of two strains to invade two endothelial cell types. Tachyzoites of the RH and ME49 strains were expanded in Balb/c and C57BL6-RAG2-/- mice, respectively. Tachyzoites were harvested from 72 h Vero cell cultures and incubated for 30 min to 4 h at 10:1 parasite/cell ratio in 24-well plates, containing monolayers of either HMEC-1 line or human umbilical cells (HUVECs). The number of infected cells and parasitic vacuoles per infected cell were counted in Wright stained slides. A slow increase in the proportion of infected cells occurred but varied according to cell type-parasite strain combination: ME49 tachyzoites invaded up to 63% HMEC-1 cells, while RH parasites infected up to 19% HUVECs. ME49 and RH tachyzoites invaded 49 and 46% HUVECs and HMEC-1 cells, respectively. Reinvasion and formation of new parasitophorous vacuoles of infected cells was more frequent than invasion of noninfected cells. The results support that the factors influencing invasion, and thus dissemination and vertical transmission, are parasite type, host cell type/subtype, and activation state. Interestingly, T. gondii virulence does not seem to relay on its invasion efficiency, but probably on replication speed.

Esporotricosis cutánea: experiencia de un hospital de tercer nivel en Cali, Colombia / Cutaneous sporotrichosis: experience at a thirdlevel hospital in Cali, Colombia

Introducción: la esporotricosis es una micosis subcutánea causada por especies del complejo Sporothrix schenckii, que se adquiere por la inoculación traumática del hongo. Objetivo: describir los aspectos epidemiológicos y clínicos de un grupo de pacientes con esporotricosis. Metodología: se realizó un estudio retrospectivo, descriptivo en un hospital de referencia de la ciudad de Cali, entre enero de 2000 y junio de 2011; de los registros de laboratorio se seleccionaron los pacientes que presentaron cultivo positivo para S. sckenckii y/o tinción con ácido peryódico de Schiff (PAS)-diastasa positiva para blastoconidias compatibles con las de este complejo. Resultados: el grupo estuvo formado por 20 hombres y 3 mujeres; ocho (34,8%) de ellos se desempeñaban en la agricultura y cuatro (17,4%), en la construcción; seis (26,1%) fueron niños menores de 15 años. En 22 (95,7%) se aisló S. sckenckii y 15 de 21 (71,4%) mostraron blastoconidias en el examen directo. Hubo 14 casos (60,9%) de la forma linfangítica y nueve (39,1%) de la fija. La enfermedad se presentó en las extremidades superiores en 16 (69,6%) pacientes, en las inferiores en cuatro (17,4%) y en la cara en tres (13%). Se hizo tratamiento con yoduro de potasio en 22 pacientes (95,6%). Conclusiones: la esporotricosis linfangítica fue la forma clínica más común en este estudio. La coloración de PAS-diastasa mostró ser útil en el diagnóstico de la enfermedad.

Introduction: Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous mycosis caused by the Sporothrix schenckii species complex; it is acquired by traumatic inoculation of the fungus. Objective: To describe the epidemiological and clinical features of a group of patients with sporotrichosis. Methodology: A retrospective and descriptive study was performed at a third-level hospital in Cali, Colombia, from January 2000 to June 2011. Records from patients having positive cultures for S. schenckii and/or periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-diastase stain showing blastoconidia were included in the analysis. Results: The group was made up of 20 men and three women. Eight patients (34.8%) were farmers and four (17.4%) worked in construction activities. Six (26.1%) were children aged under 15 years. Sporothrix sckenckii was isolated from cultures in 22 patients (95%) and in 15 out of 21 (71.4%) blastoconidia were observed by direct examination. Fourteen patients (60.9%) had the lymphangitic form of the disease. Upper limbs were most frequently affected (16 cases; 69.6%). Twenty two patients were treated with potassium iodine. Conclusions: Lymphangitic sporotrichosis was the most common clinical form of the disease in this study. PAS-diastase stain seems to be a useful diagnostic tool for sporotrichosis.

Seroprevalence and national distribution of human toxoplasmosis in Mexico: analysis of the 2000 and 2006 National Health Surveys.

Global warming has had serious implications on dispersion of infectious diseases like toxoplasmosis. Since the frequency of Toxoplasma gondii largely depends on climatic conditions, we studied its prevalence by means of 3599 samples of the National Health Survey 2000 (NHS-2000) and 2916 of the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006 (NHNS-2006) serum banks, obtained from 1-98 year old subjects of both genders and all states of Mexico. Anti-T.gondii IgG antibodies were determined by ELISA and confirmed by western blot. Crude, epidemiologically weighted and diagnosis-performance-adjusted prevalence values were calculated. Seroprevalence changes were compared between both surveys and among regions (north, center and coast). Also, correlations between changes in temperature or humidity and those in prevalence were measured. National crude prevalence was 60.1% and 62.6% for NHS-2000 and NHNS-2006, respectively. Weighted and adjusted values were 62.5% and 40.0% for NHS-2000, and 63.7 and 43.1% for NHNS-2006. Coastal states and children presented the largest increases between surveys, while the center of the country showed a decrease. An apparently higher prevalence of T. gondii infection was observed in both surveys compared to that performed in 1987, while a geographical re-distribution was found from 2000 to 2006, with a positive correlation between temperature and frequency deltas in 21 states where prevalence increased.

Congenital toxoplasmosis: specific IgG subclasses in mother/newborn pairs.

Anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies of all IgG subclasses were studied in mother/newborn pairs. IgG1 in the mothers and IgG3 in the newborns were related to offspring clinical problems; IgG2 and IgG3 in the babies were markers of vertical transmission, and IgG4 in mothers or children were associated to clinical problems. IgG subclasses may be markers of congenital infection or clinical outcome.

Synthesis and antiprotozoal activity of naphthofuranquinones and naphthothiophenequinones containing a fused thiazole ring.

The synthesis of tetracyclic quinones 10a,b, 14a,b, 19a,b and 20a,b is described. The preparations involve regioselective Diels-Alder reactions via trapping the thiazole o-quinodimethane 9 with several benzofuranquinones and benzothiophenequinones. The structure of the regioisomers was assigned through 2D NMR 1H-13C HMBC experiments performed on 10a and 14a. Compounds 10a,b, 14a as well as phenol 1 and the starting quinones 2, 5, 7 and 15 are evaluated against Leishmania sp., Toxoplasma gondii and THP-1 cells. Almost all the tested compounds exhibit significant antiprotozoal activities with lower cytotoxicities than the reference compounds. Among them, quinones 2 and 14a possess the best activities towards L. donovani and T. gondii with the lowest toxicities.