Urban blue: A global analysis of the factors shaping people's perceptions of the marine environment and ecological engineering in harbours.

Marine harbours are the focus of a diverse range of activities and subject to multiple anthropogenically induced pressures. Support for environmental management options aimed at improving degraded harbours depends on understanding the factors which influence people's perceptions of harbour environments. We used an online survey, across 12 harbours, to assess sources of variation people's perceptions of harbour health and ecological engineering. We tested the hypotheses: 1) people living near impacted harbours would consider their environment to be more unhealthy and degraded, be more concerned about the environment and supportive of and willing to pay for ecological engineering relative to those living by less impacted harbours, and 2) people with greater connectedness to the harbour would be more concerned about and have greater perceived knowledge of the environment, and be more supportive of, knowledgeable about and willing to pay for ecological engineering, than those with less connectedness. Across twelve locations, the levels of degradation and modification by artificial structures were lower and the concern and knowledge about the environment and ecological engineering were greater in the six Australasian and American than the six European and Asian harbours surveyed. We found that people's perception of harbours as healthy or degraded, but not their concern for the environment, reflected the degree to which harbours were impacted. There was a positive relationship between the percentage of shoreline modified and the extent of support for and people's willingness to pay indirect costs for ecological engineering. At the individual level, measures of connectedness to the harbour environment were good predictors of concern for and perceived knowledge about the environment but not support for and perceived knowledge about ecological engineering. To make informed decisions, it is important that people are empowered with sufficient knowledge of the environmental issues facing their harbour and ecological engineering options.

Building blue infrastructure: Assessing the key environmental issues and priority areas for ecological engineering initiatives in Australia's metropolitan embayments.

Ecological engineering principles are increasingly being applied to develop multifunctional artificial structures or rehabilitated habitats in coastal areas. Ecological engineering initiatives are primarily driven by marine scientists and coastal managers, but often the views of key user groups, which can strongly influence the success of projects, are not considered. We used an online survey and participatory mapping exercise to investigate differences in priority goals, sites and attitudes towards ecological engineering between marine scientists and coastal managers as compared to other stakeholders. The surveys were conducted across three Australian cities that varied in their level of urbanisation and environmental pressures. We tested the hypotheses that, relative to other stakeholders, marine scientists and coastal managers will: 1) be more supportive of ecological engineering; 2) be more likely to agree that enhancement of biodiversity and remediation of pollution are key priorities for ecological engineering; and 3) identify different priority areas and infrastructure or degraded habitats for ecological engineering. We also tested the hypothesis that 4) perceptions of ecological engineering would vary among locations, due to environmental and socio-economic differences. In all three harbours, marine scientists and coastal managers were more supportive of ecological engineering than other users. There was also greater support for ecological engineering in Sydney and Melbourne than Hobart. Most people identified transport infrastructure, in busy transport hubs (i.e. Circular Quay in Sydney, the Port in Melbourne and the Waterfront in Hobart) as priorities for ecological engineering, irrespective of their stakeholder group or location. There were, however, significant differences among locations in what people perceive as the key priorities for ecological engineering (i.e. biodiversity in Sydney and Melbourne vs. pollution in Hobart). Greater consideration of these location-specific differences is essential for effective management of artificial structures and rehabilitated habitats in urban embayments.

Leptospira interrogans at the human-wildlife interface in northern Botswana: a newly identified public health threat.

Leptospirosis is the most widespread zoonosis in the world. In northern Botswana, humans live in close proximity to a diversity of wildlife and peridomestic rodents and may be exposed to a variety of zoonotic pathogens. Little is known regarding the occurrence and epidemiology of L. interrogans in Africa despite the recognized global importance of this zoonotic disease and the threat it poses to public health. In Botswana, banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) live in close proximity to humans across protected and unprotected landscapes and may be a useful sentinel species for assessing the occurrence of zoonotic organisms, such as L. interrogans. We utilized PCR to screen banded mongoose kidneys for leptospiral DNA and identified 41.5% prevalence of renal carriage of L. interrogans (exact binomial 95% CI 27.7-56.7%, n = 41). Renal carriage was also detected in one Selous' mongoose (Paracynictis selousi). This is the first published confirmation of carriage of L. interrogans in either species. This is also the first report of L. interrogans occurrence in northern Botswana and the only report of this organism in a wildlife host in the country. Pathogenic Leptospira are usually transmitted indirectly to humans through soil or water contaminated with infected urine. Other avenues, such as direct contact between humans and wildlife, as well as consumption of mongooses and other wildlife as bushmeat, may pose additional exposure risk and must be considered in public health management of this newly identified zoonotic disease threat. There is a critical need to characterize host species involvement and pathogen transmission dynamics, including human-wildlife interactions that may increase human exposure potential and infection risk. We recommend that public health strategy be modified to include sensitization of medical practitioners to the presence of L. interrogans in the region, the potential for human infection, and implementation of clinical screening. This study illustrates the need for increased focus on neglected zoonotic diseases as they present an important threat to public health.

Overcoming barriers in evaluating outbreaks of diarrheal disease in resource poor settings: assessment of recurrent outbreaks in Chobe District, Botswana.

BACKGROUND: Diarrheal illness remains a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, with the majority of deaths occurring in children <5 years of age. Lack of resources often prohibits the evaluation of outbreak characteristics and limits progress in managing this important disease syndrome, particularly in Africa. Relying only on existing medical staff and hospital resources, we assess the use of a questionnaire survey tool to identify baseline outbreak characteristics during recurrent diarrheal outbreaks in Chobe, Botswana. METHODS: Using historical surveillance data (2006-2009), the temporal pattern of recurrent diarrheal outbreaks was evaluated among patients <5 years of age presenting to health facilities in Chobe District. Using a questionnaire survey tool, medical staff from selected health facilities assessed patients (all ages) presenting with diarrheal disease during two diarrheal outbreaks (2011-2012). Cluster analysis and classification and regression trees (CART) were used to evaluate patient attributes by outbreak. RESULTS: We identified a bimodal, annual pattern of acute diarrhea in children <5 years of age across years (Wilcox test, W = 456.5, p = 0.052). Historical outbreak periods appeared to coincide with major hydrological phenomena (rainfall/flood recession). Across health facilities, a significant percent of patients in the prospective study were in the ≥5 age class (44%, n = 515 and 35%, n = 333 in the dry and wet season outbreaks, respectively). Cluster analysis of questionnaire data identified two main branches associated with patient age (<5 and ≥5 years of age). Patients did not cluster by outbreak or village. CART examination identified sex and hospitalization as being most predictive of patients <5 years and household diarrhea in patients ≥5 years. Water shortages and water quality deficiencies were identified in both outbreaks. CONCLUSIONS: Diarrhea is a persistent, seasonally occurring disease in Chobe District, Botswana. Lack of variation in outbreak variables suggests the possibility of environmental drivers influencing outbreak dynamics and the potential importance of human-environmental linkages in this region. Public health strategy should be directed at securing improved water service and correcting water quality deficiencies. Public health education should include increased emphasis on sanitation practices when providing care to household members with diarrhea. While global diarrheal disease surveillance is directed at the under-5 age group, this may not be appropriate in areas of high HIV prevalence such as that found in our study area where a large immune-compromised population may warrant increased surveillance across age groups. The approach used in this study provided the first detailed characterization of diarrheal disease outbreaks in the area, an important starting point for immediate intervention and development of working hypotheses for future disease investigations. While data derived from this approach are necessarily limited, they identify critical information on outbreak characteristics in resource poor settings where data gaps continue and disease incidence is high.

Activated human T cells express alternative mRNA transcripts encoding a secreted form of RANKL.

Receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB-ligand (RANKL), encoded by the gene TNFSF11, is required for osteoclastogenesis, and its expression is upregulated in pathologic bone loss. Transcript variants of TNFSF11 messenger RNA (mRNA) have been described that encode a membrane-bound and a putative secreted form of RANKL. We identify a TNFSF11 transcript variant that extends the originally identified transcript encoding secreted RANKL. We demonstrate that this TNFSF11 transcript variant is expressed by the human osteosarcoma cell line, Saos-2, and by both primary human T cells and Jurkat T cells. Of relevance to the production of RANKL in pathologic bone loss, expression of this secreted TNFSF11 transcript is upregulated in Jurkat T cells and primary human T cells upon activation. Furthermore, this transcript can be translated and secreted in Jurkat T cells in vitro and is able to support osteoclast differentiation. Our data highlight the complexity of the TNFSF11 genomic locus, and demonstrate the potential for the expression of alternate mRNA transcripts encoding membrane-bound and secreted forms of RANKL. Implications of alternate mRNA transcripts encoding different RANKL protein isoforms should be carefully considered and specifically examined in future studies, particularly those implicating RANKL in pathologic bone loss.

Tracking pathogen transmission at the human-wildlife interface: banded mongoose and Escherichia coli.

A primary challenge to managing emerging infectious disease is identifying pathways that allow pathogen transmission at the human-wildlife interface. Using Escherichia coli as a model organism, we evaluated fecal bacterial transmission between banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) and humans in northern Botswana. Fecal samples were collected from banded mongoose living in protected areas (n = 87, 3 troops) and surrounding villages (n = 92, 3 troops). Human fecal waste was collected from the same environment (n = 46). Isolates were evaluated for susceptibility to 10 antibiotics. Resistant E. coli isolates from mongoose were compared to human isolates using rep-PCR fingerprinting and MLST-PCR. Antimicrobial resistant isolates were identified in 57 % of the mongoose fecal samples tested (range 31-78% among troops). At least one individual mongoose fecal sample demonstrated resistance to each tested antibiotic, and multidrug resistance was highest in the protected areas (40.9%). E. coli isolated from mongoose and human sources in this study demonstrated an extremely high degree of genetic similarity on rep-PCR (AMOVA, F ST = 0.0027, p = 0.18) with a similar pattern identified on MLST-PCR. Human waste may be an important source of microbial exposure to wildlife. Evidence of high levels of antimicrobial resistance even within protected areas identifies an emerging health threat and highlights the need for improved waste management in these systems.

Multi-host pathogens and carnivore management in southern Africa.

A retrospective serosurvey of multi-host feline and canine viruses among carnivore species in southern Africa (n=1018) identified widespread pathogen exposure even in remote protected areas. In contrast to mortality experienced in East African predators, canine distemper virus (CDV) infection among African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Botswana was not associated with identifiable change in pup survivorship or disease related mortality of adults. A disease outbreak of unknown aetiology occurred in the same population over 4 weeks in 1996. Outbreak boundaries coincided with ecotones, not the spatial distribution of contiguous packs, highlighting the potential importance of landscape heterogeneities in these processes. Direct management of pathogens in domestic animal reservoirs is complicated by the apparent complexity of pathogen maintenance and transmission in these large systems. Conservation effort should be focused at securing large metapopulations able to compensate for expected episodic generalist pathogen invasion and attention directed to addressing underlying causes of population depression such as habitat loss and wildlife conflict.

The duration of fecal Salmonella shedding following clinical disease among dairy cattle in the northeastern USA.

The objectives of this study were to determine the duration of fecal Salmonella shedding among dairy cattle in the northeastern United States following laboratory-confirmed clinical disease and to evaluate whether age group or serotype was associated with either shedding period or mortality. Study farms included 22 dairy herds that had at least two previous salmonellosis cases confirmed by fecal culture. Veterinarians continued to submit culture samples from clinical suspects following herd enrollment, and fecal samples from positive cattle were collected monthly until three sequential negative results were obtained or until loss to follow-up. There were 357 culture-positive clinical cases that each involved a single serotype during the shedding period. The Kaplan-Meier median duration of fecal Salmonella shedding was 50 days, and the maximum was 391 days. S. Newport was the predominant serotype, accounting for 51% of the cases. Age group and serotype were not significant predictors of Salmonella shedding duration in a Cox proportional hazards model, when stratifying by herd. However, the proportion of adult cows shedding for at least two consecutive monthly samples was significantly greater than the proportion of female calves shedding for this duration (Fisher's exact test p-value<0.01). Age group was also associated with mortality in this study; calves with salmonellosis were more likely to die than cows as estimated by a logistic regression model which controlled for herd as a random effect (p-value=0.04).

The incidence of salmonellosis among dairy herds in the northeastern United States.

The objectives of this study were to estimate the incidence of salmonellosis among a large sample of dairy herds in the northeastern United States (both at the animal level and the herd level), to describe the serotypes and antimicrobial resistance profiles of the positive samples, and to determine whether various herd-level factors were important predictors of incidence. Participating veterinarians enrolled 831 dairy herds and submitted fecal samples from 2,565 female dairy cattle for Salmonella culture because of suspicion of clinical disease. Estimates of animal-level incidence rates were calculated for each age group as the number of cases per animal time at risk, and an estimate of herd-level incidence rate was calculated as the number of positive herds per herd time at risk. Descriptive analysis of serotype data and level of antimicrobial resistance was performed, and Poisson regression analysis was used to study associations between the within-herd incidence of salmonellosis and certain predictor variables (herd size, housing type, vaccination status, and prior history of Salmonella infection). Salmonella was isolated from 576 (22.5%) samples representing 93 herds. The animal-level incidence rates for preweaned female calves, heifers, and adult cows were 8.1, 0.04, and 1.8 cases per 1,000 animal-years, respectively. The herd-level incidence rate was 8.6 positive herds per 100 herd-years. Salmonella Newport was the predominant serotype, accounting for 41% of the cases, followed by Salmonella Typhimurium. Over 68% of all isolates were resistant to 5 or more antimicrobial agents. Herd size was the only significant predictor of the incidence of salmonellosis in a multivariable model; herds with at least 400 female dairy cattle had a higher incidence rate than smaller herds. Our results shed light on the impact of salmonellosis on the dairy industry in the northeastern United States, and they help clarify the role of dairy cattle as a source of Salmonella serotypes that are also important human pathogens.

Bacteremia, central catheters, and neonates: when to pull the line.

OBJECTIVES: Physicians who treat neonates who become bacteremic while dependent on central venous catheters face a serious and common dilemma. We sought 1) to evaluate the relationship between central venous catheter removal and outcome in bacteremic neonates, 2) to determine species of bacteria that are associated with an increased risk of infectious complications if the central catheter is not removed promptly, and 3) to provide evidence-based recommendations for central catheter management. METHOD: A retrospective cohort study of all neonates who had central venous access and developed bacteremia between July 1, 1995, and July 31, 1999, was conducted in the Duke University neonatal intensive care unit. RESULTS: The outcome for patients in whom the central catheter was not removed within 24 hours of organism identification was significantly worse (odds ratio = 9.8) than it was for those whose catheters were removed promptly. For patients who were infected with Staphylococcus aureus or with nonenteric Gram-negative rods, delayed removal of the central catheter was associated with complicated bacteremia. Catheter sterilization was attempted in 27 neonates who were infected with enteric Gram-negative rods; only 10 of these infants retained their catheters without infection-related complications. Infants who had 4 consecutive blood cultures that were positive for coagulase-negative staphylococcus (CoNS) were at significantly increased risk for end-organ damage and death, compared with infants who had 3 or fewer positive blood culture for CoNS (odds ratio = 29.58). CONCLUSIONS: Bacteremic infants experienced fewer infection-related complications when the central catheter was removed promptly. One positive blood culture for S aureus or a Gram-negative rod warrants central line removal in a neonate. Clinicians who are faced with a neonate who has 1 positive culture for CoNS may attempt medical management without central catheter removal, but documentation of subsequent negative blood cultures is crucial. Once a neonate has 3 positive blood cultures for CoNS, the central catheter should be removed.central line, neonate, bacteremia, bacteria, umbilical catheter, Broviac, percutaneous.

Recent advances in diagnosis and therapy of human papillomaviruses.

Infection with human papillomavirus is extremely common throughout the world. Almost 50% of sexually active young women are infected with human papillomavirus and although most infections are transient, a subset has the potential to progress to invasive cancer. During the last 20 years, our understanding of the human papillomavirus life cycle and the role of human papillomavirus in human cancer has dramatically increased. Recent technological advances in human papillomavirus detection have provided the means to detect the presence of human papillomavirus with great sensitivity. In the context of patient care, there is still substantial debate regarding the optimal diagnostic and prognostic use of information derived from hybrid capture or polymerase chain reaction-based detection. The inventory of available treatment options is growing somewhat slowly. The most promising advances are being made in the clinical evaluation of candidates for prophylactic vaccination. This review is focused on the current status and future directions of prevention, diagnosis and therapy.

The E1 helicase of human papillomavirus type 11 binds to the origin of replication with low sequence specificity.

Expression of the human papillomavirus type 11 E1 and E2 genes is necessary and sufficient to support viral DNA replication. The full-length E2 protein is a transcriptional modulator that also interacts with the E1 helicase to form an E1/E2 complex at the viral origin of replication. Previous studies indicated that efficient binding of this complex to the replication origin is site-specific and that the E2 homodimer was required for efficient E1 binding. Human papillomavirus type 11 E2 and E1 proteins have been purified and their cooperative binding to the HPV type 11 viral replication origin has been characterized. Low-affinity E1 binding to the HPV type 11 replication origin was demonstrated and found to be largely nonspecific. DNA binding by E1 does not require complex formation with E2 and appears to be independent of ATP binding or hydrolysis. E1 binding quantitatively increased with the addition of increasing amounts of E2 and mutations in the E2 binding site demonstrated that the E2BS site is required for E1 and E2 to specifically bind as a high-affinity complex at the replication origin. Analysis of the A/T-rich E1 binding site via mutation showed that it was nonessential for high-affinity E1/E2 complex formation. Thus, although the replication functions between the animal and the human papillomaviruses are well conserved, there are subtle differences in the DNA binding requirements for E1, which may portend mechanistic differences among the DNA replication systems of various papillomavirus types.

Subunit affinities and stoichiometries of the human papillomavirus type 11 E1:E2:DNA complex.

The association between the papillomavirus E1 and E2 proteins is an important regulatory interaction, imparting coordinated control of viral transcription and replication. Using fluorescence polarization, we have characterized the interactions between HPV-11 E1, HPV-11 E2, and DNA in solution at equilibrium. For these studies, two double-stranded fluorescein-labeled oligonucleotides were prepared. The first fluorescent oligonucleotide, designated Fl-E2BS and containing a single E2 binding-site palindrome (ACCGN6CGGT), was used to determine the affinity of E2 for its DNA binding site. HPV-11 E2 bound Fl-E2BS with an apparent Kd of 0.84 nM. Binding was saturable and consistent with a single class of noninteracting sites. The second oligonucleotide, designated Fl-E1E2BS, contained both E1 and E2 sites in sequence derived directly from the HPV-11 origin of replication. Under titration conditions identical to those used for Fl-E2BS, the E2 protein exhibited reduced affinity for Fl-E1E2BS (Kd > 100 nM). E1 binding to Fl-E1E2BS was of very low affinity. Addition of excess HPV-11 E1 to Fl-E1E2BS lowered the dissociation constant for the E2:Fl-E1E2BS interaction to 2 nM. This effect was not dependent upon ATP or magnesium ion. Fluorescence polarization and other data suggest formation of a complex containing six E1 molecules and a single dimer of E2 bound to a single Fl-E1E2BS oligonucleotide; E2 dissociation from the final complex did not occur. In summary, physical interaction between E1 and E2 increases the DNA binding affinity of each. The role of this energy coupling may be to promote origin-specific binding of both E1 and E2 to DNA.

Spontaneous rupture of a primigravid uterus secondary to placenta percreta. A case report.

BACKGROUND: Uterine rupture secondary to placenta percreta has been observed in multiparous patients. These cases are typically associated with a prior history of uterine trauma or infection: hysterotomy, myomectomy, cornual resection, dilatation and curettage, manual removal of the placenta or endometritis. Spontaneous rupture of the primigravid uterus without a history of trauma or infection is an exceedingly rare occurrence. This case represents the second reported in the medical literature and the first to result in a live-born infant. CASE: A 23-year-old, African American primigravida at 26 weeks' gestation presented with acute-onset abdominal pain, severe hypotension, tachycardia and fetal heart rate decelerations. Blood product replacement was initiated, and an emergency laparotomy was performed for a presumptive diagnosis of intraabdominal hemorrhage. A significant hemoperitoneum was encountered, with the fetus floating freely in the peritoneal cavity. The uterus had a fundal rupture with a clinically apparent placenta percreta that necessitated performing a total abdominal hysterectomy. The patient recovered uneventfully, and the infant survived without significant morbidity. CONCLUSION: Spontaneous rupture of the primigravid uterus can occur in the absence of a history of uterine trauma or infection. If a gravid woman presents with hypotension, abdominal pain and fetal distress, the differential diagnosis should include rupture of the uterus, regardless of parity or gynecologic history. Rapid diagnosis, blood product replacement and emergency laparotomy are the key steps in successful management.

The MotA transcriptional activator of bacteriophage T4 binds to its specific DNA site as a monomer.

During bacteriophage T4 middle mode gene expression, the MotA transcription factor binds to T4 middle promoters at a -30 mot box consensus sequence to allow activation. Previous binding studies showed that MotA forms multiple gel-shifted complexes with DNA, and structural evidence suggested that MotA dimerizes upon DNA binding. We have shown that a short (13 bp) mot box DNA substrate binds MotA protein but fails to form slower migrating complexes. Therefore, the slower migrating complexes in gel shift assays are caused by DNA-mediated binding events. Competition experiments indicate that the slower migrating complexes are formed by nonspecific binding events, while the first-shifted complex is caused by specific binding to the mot box. Saturation binding experiments revealed that the stoichiometry of MotA binding to DNA is 1:1 in the first-shifted complex, while the slower complexes apparently contain MotA multimers. Gel shift assays using mixtures of MotA and a GST-MotA fusion protein supported the conclusion that the first-shifted complex contains one protein molecule bound to DNA. Furthermore, MotA monomers were cross-linked by glutaraldehyde under conditions where slower complexes exist, but not under conditions that lead to only the first-shifted complex. We conclude that MotA binds specifically to the mot box as a monomer and that additional nonspecific binding events require flanking DNA.

Rabies among African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Masai Mara, Kenya.

A pack of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) ranging to the north of the Masai Mara National Reserve in southwestern Kenya was monitored from 1988 to 1989. During a 6-week period (August 1-September 13, 1989), 21 of 23 members of this pack died. Seven carcasses were retrieved, of which 4 were suitable for necropsy and histopathologic examination. Gross findings varied among individuals and included multiple bite wounds, synovitis, lymphadenopathy, submandibular, cervical, and vocal cord edema, blood in bronchi, bronchioles, stomach, and intestine, and interioventral lung lobe consolidation. Histologic examination of 2 available brain samples revealed nonsuppurative encephalitis with eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (Negri bodies). An additional brain sample tested positive for rabies via a fluorescent antibody test. Other histologic features included severe suppurative bronchopneumonia, myocarditis, and lymphoid depletion of the lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen. A 304-base pair (bp) nucleotide sequence from the N gene and a 310-bp sequence from the G gene from rabies isolates of 4 wild dogs indicated that infection was with a rabies variant common among domestic dogs in Kenya and Tanzania.

A fluorescence anisotropy study of DNA binding by HPV-11 E2C protein: a hierarchy of E2-binding sites.

Association of the human papillomavirus (HPV) E2 protein with its palindromic DNA-binding site is a necessary step for transcriptional trans-activation. To study the interaction between DNA and E2, the carboxyl-terminal domain of HPV-11 E2 protein (E2C) was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The binding affinity of the recombinant E2C protein for a single palindromic DNA recognition site was determined using a 5'-fluorescein-labeled 24 base pair oligonucleotide. Competitive titrations between the fluorescein-labeled oligonucleotide and an unlabeled oligonucleotide of identical sequence yielded a native affinity of 4.5 x 10(-9)M. Sequences from the seven E2-binding sites within the HPV-11 genome were titrated to establish a hierarchy of binding site affinities. All high-affinity E2-binding sites are located within or near the HPV-11 LCR. E2-binding sites distant from the LCR appear to have low affinity for E2. When the location and affinity of each E2-binding site are plotted in relation to a transcription map of HPV-11, it is apparent that the major RNA transcripts produced reflect the high-affinity E2-binding sites within the HPV LCR. To assess the E2C-binding contribution of specific base pairs within the oligonucleotide palindrome, additional double-stranded oligonucleotides were prepared in which the central nonpalindromic sequences were varied. While simple strand transposition of the A4.T4 center had a minimal effect upon the E2C-oligonucleotide binding affinity, replacement with TATA.ATAT or CGCG.GCGC centers substantially decreased the affinity of E2C for its binding site. Alteration of the canonical portions of the E2-binding palindrome reduced the DNA-protein binding affinity dramatically.

Rabies and African wild dogs in Kenya.

Three packs of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) ranging to the north of the Masai Mara National Reserve in southwestern Kenya were monitored from 1988 to 1990. During a six week period (August 2-September 14, 1989), 21 of 23 members of one of these packs died. Histological examination of two brain samples revealed eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (Negri bodies), supporting a diagnosis of rabies viral encephalitis. An additional brain sample tested positive for rabies with a fluorescent antibody test. Nucleotide sequence of the rabies viral N and G genes from isolates of four African wild dogs (including an individual from Tanzania) indicated that infection was with a viral variant common among domestic dogs in Kenya and Tanzania. A hypothesis linking African wild dog rabies deaths to researcher handling is evaluated and considered implausible.