Beyond intensive mothering: Racial/ethnic variation in maternal time with children.

Despite substantial evidence that racial/ethnic minority communities exhibit distinct mothering practices, research on racial/ethnic differences in how mothers spend time with their children is scant. Using the 2003-2019 American Time Use Survey (N = 44,372), this study documents variations in the amounts of childcare and copresent time spent in various activities with residential children aged 0-17 across White, Black, Latina, and Asian mothers. The results show that racial/ethnic differences in maternal time spent with children are partly due to socioeconomic differences but still exist when these factors are held constant, indicating patterns that reflect each minority community's mothering norms. Compared to mothers in other groups, Black mothers spend more copresent time with children in religious activities, although less in terms of the total amount of time. Latina mothers spend more copresent time with elementary-school-age children while engaging in daily routines. Asian mothers spend more time teaching and eating with elementary-school-age or younger children.

Mother-Child Relationship Quality from Preschool to Adolescence: Variation by Maternal Education.

Using longitudinal data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1,088), we examine changes in maternal perception of closeness and conflict in the mother-child relationship from the child's preschool to adolescent years, with attention to variation by maternal education. Analyses using individual growth models show that mother-child closeness increases, while mother-child conflict decreases from preschool to first grade. From first grade to age 15, mother-child closeness decreases, while mother-child conflict increases, both gradually. The decrease in mother-child conflict from preschool to first grade and the increases in mother-child conflict from first to fifth grade, sixth grade, and age 15 are less steep for mothers with a college degree than for mothers without a college degree. These findings underscore the importance of examining changes in parent-child relationships using longitudinal data across children's developmental stages and their variations by parental social and economic status.

Parental Race/Ethnicity and Children's Summer Activities: A Critical Race Approach.

Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (N = 3,748), we examine how children's summer activities vary across White, Black, Latino, and Asian American families, net of socioeconomic and other characteristics. Overall, a majority of children play outside and use screen media daily, do learning activities three days or more per week, and take family trips. Attending summer school or camps is less common. As predicted from critical race perspectives, Black parents have children spend more time attending camps than other parents. Compared with White parents, Black and Asian parents have their children engaged in academic activities more and play outside less; Latino parents do learning activities with their children less, but are more likely to have them tutored. All the three non-White groups allow children to spend more time using screen media. More quantitative research using critical race perspectives in conceptualizing racial/ethnic differences in parenting is warranted.