Cross-species transmission and PB2 mammalian adaptations of highly pathogenic avian influenza A/H5N1 viruses in Chile.

H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) emerged in wild birds in Chile in December 2022 and spilled over into poultry, marine mammals, and one human. Between December 9, 2022 - March 14, 2023, a coordinated government/academic response detected HPAIV by real-time RT-PCR in 8.5% (412/4735) of samples from 23 avian and 3 mammal orders. Whole-genome sequences obtained from 77 birds and 8 marine mammals revealed that all Chilean H5N1 viruses belong to lineage 2.3.4.4b and cluster monophyletically with viruses from Peru, indicating a single introduction from North America into Peru/Chile. Mammalian adaptations were identified in the PB2 segment: D701N in two sea lions, one human, and one shorebird, and Q591K in the human and one sea lion. Minor variant analysis revealed that D701N was present in 52.9 - 70.9% of sequence reads, indicating the presence of both genotypes within hosts. Further surveillance of spillover events is warranted to assess the emergence and potential onward transmission of mammalian adapted H5N1 HPAIV in South America.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Clade 2.3.4.4b Virus in Wild Birds, Chile.

In December 2022, highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus emerged in Chile. We detected H5N1 virus in 93 samples and obtained 9 whole-genome sequences of strains from wild birds. Phylogenetic analysis suggests multiple viral introductions into South America. Continued surveillance is needed to assess risks to humans and domestic poultry.

Short-term complications and post-acute sequelae in hospitalized paediatric patients with COVID-19 and obesity: A multicenter cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Obesity increases the severity of coronavirus disease 2019 illness in adults. The role of obesity in short-term complications and post-acute sequelae in children is not well defined. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between obesity and short-term complications and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection in hospitalized paediatric patients. METHODS: An observational study was conducted in three tertiary hospitals, including paediatric hospitalized patients with a confirmatory SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR from March 2020 to December 2021. Obesity was defined according to WHO 2006 (0-2 years) and CDC 2000 (2-20 years) growth references. Short-term outcomes were intensive care unit admission, ventilatory support, superinfections, acute kidney injury, and mortality. Neurological, respiratory, and cardiological symptoms and/or delayed or long-term complications beyond 4 weeks from the onset of symptoms were considered as post-acute sequalae. Adjusted linear, logistic regression and generalized estimating equations models were performed. RESULTS: A total of 216 individuals were included, and 67 (31.02%) of them had obesity. Obesity was associated with intensive care unit admission (aOR = 5.63, CI95% 2.90-10.94), oxygen requirement (aOR = 2.77, CI95% 1.36-5.63), non-invasive ventilatory support (aOR = 6.81, CI95% 2.11-22.04), overall superinfections (aOR = 3.02 CI95% 1.45-6.31), and suspected bacterial pneumonia (aOR = 3.00 CI95% 1.44-6.23). For post-acute sequalae, obesity was associated with dyspnea (aOR = 9.91 CI95% 1.92-51.10) and muscle weakness (aOR = 20.04 CI95% 2.50-160.65). CONCLUSIONS: In paediatric hospitalized patients with COVID-19, severe short-term outcomes and post-acute sequelae are associated with obesity. Recognizing obesity as a key comorbidity is essential to develop targeted strategies for prevention of COVID-19 complications in children.

High prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 detection and prolonged viral shedding in stools: A systematic review and cohort study / Elevada detección de SARS-CoV-2 y prolongada excreción viral en deposiciones: Estudio de cohorte y revisión sistemática

Objectives: To: 1. Describe the frequency of viral RNA detection in stools in a cohort of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, and 2. Perform a systematic review to assess the clearance time in stools of SARS-CoV-2. Methods: We conducted a prospective cohort study in two centers between March and May 2020. We included SARS-CoV-2 infected patients of any age and severity. We collected seriated nasopharyngeal swabs and stool samples to detect SARS-CoV-2. After, we performed a systematic review of the prevalence and clearance of SARS-CoV-2 in stools (PROSPERO-ID: CRD42020192490). We estimated prevalence using a random-effects model. We assessed clearance time by using Kaplan–Meier curves. Results: We included 32 patients; mean age was 43.7±17.7 years, 43.8% were female, and 40.6% reported gastrointestinal symptoms. Twenty-five percent (8/32) of patients had detectable viral RNA in stools. The median clearance time in stools of the cohort was 11[10–15] days. Systematic review included 30 studies (1392 patients) with stool samples. Six studies were performed in children and 55% were male. The pooled prevalence of viral detection in stools was 34.6% (twenty-four studies, 1393 patients; 95%CI:25.4–45.1); heterogeneity was high (I2:91.2%, Q:208.6; p≤0.001). A meta-regression demonstrates an association between female-gender and lower presence in stools (p=0.004). The median clearance time in stools was 22 days (nineteen studies, 140 patients; 95%CI:19–25). After 34 days, 19.9% (95%CI:11.3–29.7) of patients have a persistent detection in stools. Conclusions: Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in stools is a frequent finding. The clearance of SARS-CoV-2 in stools is prolonged and it takes longer than nasopharyngeal secretions.(AU)

Objetivos: 1. Evaluar la detección de ARN viral en deposiciones y su tiempo de excreción en una cohorte de pacientes con SARS-CoV-2; 2. Realizar una revisión sistemática para evaluar el tiempo de excreción en deposiciones del SARS-CoV-2. Métodos: Estudio de cohorte prospectiva en dos centros entre marzo-mayo del 2020. Incluimos pacientes infectados con SARS-CoV-2 de cualquier edad y gravedad. Recolectamos secreciones nasofaríngeas y deposiciones en forma seriada para detectar SARS-CoV-2. También realizamos una revisión sistemática de la prevalencia y excreción del SARS-CoV-2 en deposiciones (PROSPERO-ID: CRD42020192490). Estimamos la prevalencia usando un modelo de efectos aleatorios. Evaluamos el tiempo de excreción usando curvas Kaplan-Meier. Resultados: Incluimos 32 pacientes; edad media 43 ± 17,7 años, 43,8% eran mujeres y 40,6% reportaron síntomas gastrointestinales. Veinticinco por ciento (8/32) tenían ARN viral detectable en deposiciones. La mediana de excreción en deposiciones fue 11 [10-15] días. La revisión sistemática incluyó 30 estudios (1.392 pacientes) con muestras en deposiciones. Seis estudios fueron realizados en niños y 55% eran hombres. La prevalencia estimada de detección viral en deposiciones fue de 34,6% (24 estudios, 1.393 pacientes; IC 95%: 25,4-45,1); la heterogeneidad fue elevada (I2: 91,2%; Q: 208,6; p ≤ 0,001). Una metarregresión demostró una asociación entre el género femenino y menor prevalencia en deposiciones (p = 0,004). La mediana de tiempo de excreción fueron 22 días (19 estudios, 140 pacientes; IC 95%: 19-25). Tras 34 días, 19,9% (IC 95%: 11,3-29,7) de los pacientes tenían detección persistente en deposiciones. Conclusiones: La detección de SARS-CoV-2 en deposiciones es un hallazgo frecuente. La excreción del SARS-CoV-2 en deposiciones es prolongada y es más tardía que en secreciones nasofaríngeas.(AU)

Induction of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies by CoronaVac and BNT162b2 vaccines in naïve and previously infected individuals.

BACKGROUND: A major challenge of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is to better define "protective thresholds" to guide the global response. We aimed to characterize the longitudinal dynamics of the antibody responses in naturally infected individuals in Chile and compared them to humoral responses induced after immunization with CoronaVac-based on an inactivated whole virus -or the BNT162b2- based on mRNA-vaccines. We also contrasted them with the respective effectiveness and efficacy data available for both vaccines. METHODS: We determined and compared the longitudinal neutralizing (nAb) and anti-nucleocapsid (anti-N) antibody responses of 74 COVID-19 individuals (37 outpatient and 37 hospitalized) during the acute disease and convalescence. We also assessed the antibody boosting of 36 of these individuals who were immunized after convalescence with either the CoronaVac (n = 30) or the BNT162b2 (n = 6) vaccines. Antibody titres were also measured for 50 naïve individuals immunized with two doses of CoronaVac (n = 35) or BNT162b2 (n = 15) vaccines. The neutralizing level after vaccination was compared to those of convalescent individuals and the predicted efficacy was estimated. FINDINGS: SARS-CoV-2 infection induced robust nAb and anti-N antibody responses lasting >9 months, but showing a rapid nAb decay. After convalescence, nAb titres were significantly boosted by vaccination with CoronaVac or BNT162b2. In naïve individuals, the calculated mean titre induced by two doses of CoronaVac or BNT162b2 was 0·2 times and 5.2 times, respectively, that of convalescent individuals, which has been proposed as threshold of protection. CoronaVac induced no or only modest anti-N antibody responses. Using two proposed logistic models, the predicted efficacy of BNT162b2 was estimated at 97%, in close agreement with phase 3 efficacy studies, while for CoronaVac it was ∼50% corresponding to the lowest range of clinical trials and below the real-life data from Chile (from February 2 through May 1, 2021 during the predominant circulation of the Gamma variant), where the estimated vaccine effectiveness to prevent COVID-19 was 62·8-64·6%. INTERPRETATION: The decay of nAbs titres in previously infected individuals over time indicates that vaccination is needed to boost humoral memory responses. Immunization of naïve individuals with two doses of CoronaVac induced nAbs titres that were significantly lower to that of convalescent patients, and similar to vaccination with one dose of BTN162b2. The real life effectiveness for CoronaVac in Chile was higher than estimated; indicating that lower titres and additional cellular immune responses induced by CoronaVac might afford protection in a highly immunized population. Nevertheless, the lower nAb titre induced by two doses of CoronaVac as compared to the BTN162b2 vaccine in naïve individuals, highlights the need of booster immunizations over time to maintain protective levels of antibody, particularly with the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants. FUNDING: FONDECYT 1161971, 1212023, 1181799, FONDECYT Postdoctorado 3190706 and 3190648, ANID Becas/Doctorado Nacional 21212258, PIA ACT 1408, CONICYT REDES180170, Centro Ciencia & Vida, FB210008, Financiamiento Basal para Centros Científicos y Tecnológicos de Excelencia grants from the Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo (ANID) of Chile; NIH-NIAD grants U19AI135972, R01AI132633 and contracts HHSN272201400008C and 75N93019C00051; the JPB Foundation, the Open Philanthropy Project grant 2020-215611 (5384); and by anonymous donors. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Assessment of Mutations Associated With Genomic Variants of SARS-CoV-2: RT-qPCR as a Rapid and Affordable Tool to Monitoring Known Circulating Variants in Chile, 2021.

Since the first report of SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans, the virus has mutated to develop new viral variants with higher infection rates and more resistance to neutralization by antibodies elicited after natural SARS-CoV-2 infection or by vaccines. Therefore, rapid identification of viral variants circulating in the population is crucial for epidemiological assessment and efforts to contain the resurgence of the pandemic. Between January and November 2021, we performed a large variant RT-qPCR-based screening of mutations in the spike protein of 1851 SARS-CoV-2-positive samples derived from outpatients from the UC-Christus Health Network in Chile. In a portion of samples (n = 636), we validated our RT-qPCR-pipeline by WGS, obtaining a 99.2% concordance. Our results indicate that from January to March 2021 there was a dominance of non-identifiable variants by the RT-qPCR-based screening; however, throughout WGS we were able to identify the Lambda (C.37) variant of interest (VOI). From March to July, we observed the rapid emergence of mutations associated with the Gamma variant (P.1), which was quickly replaced by the appearance of a combination of samples harboring mutations associated with the Delta variant (B.1.617.2), which predominated until the end of the study. Our results highlight the applicability of cost-effective RT-qPCR-based screening of mutations associated with known variants of concern (VOC), VOI and variants under monitoring (VUM) of SARS-CoV-2, being a rapid and reliable tool that complements WGS-based surveillance.

High prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 detection and prolonged viral shedding in stools: A systematic review and cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To: 1. Describe the frequency of viral RNA detection in stools in a cohort of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, and 2. Perform a systematic review to assess the clearance time in stools of SARS-CoV-2. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study in two centers between March and May 2020. We included SARS-CoV-2 infected patients of any age and severity. We collected seriated nasopharyngeal swabs and stool samples to detect SARS-CoV-2. After, we performed a systematic review of the prevalence and clearance of SARS-CoV-2 in stools (PROSPERO-ID: CRD42020192490). We estimated prevalence using a random-effects model. We assessed clearance time by using Kaplan-Meier curves. RESULTS: We included 32 patients; mean age was 43.7±17.7 years, 43.8% were female, and 40.6% reported gastrointestinal symptoms. Twenty-five percent (8/32) of patients had detectable viral RNA in stools. The median clearance time in stools of the cohort was 11[10-15] days. Systematic review included 30 studies (1392 patients) with stool samples. Six studies were performed in children and 55% were male. The pooled prevalence of viral detection in stools was 34.6% (twenty-four studies, 1393 patients; 95%CI:25.4-45.1); heterogeneity was high (I2:91.2%, Q:208.6; p≤0.001). A meta-regression demonstrates an association between female-gender and lower presence in stools (p=0.004). The median clearance time in stools was 22 days (nineteen studies, 140 patients; 95%CI:19-25). After 34 days, 19.9% (95%CI:11.3-29.7) of patients have a persistent detection in stools. CONCLUSIONS: Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in stools is a frequent finding. The clearance of SARS-CoV-2 in stools is prolonged and it takes longer than nasopharyngeal secretions.

Long-lasting neutralizing antibody responses in SARS-CoV-2 seropositive individuals are robustly boosted by immunization with the CoronaVac and BNT162b2 vaccines.

The durability of circulating neutralizing antibody (nAb) responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and their boosting by vaccination remains to be defined. We show that outpatient and hospitalized SARS-CoV-2 seropositive individuals mount a robust neutralizing antibody (nAb) response that peaks at days 23 and 27 post-symptom onset, respectively. Although nAb titers remained higher in hospitalized patients, both study groups showed long-lasting nAb responses that can persist for up to 12 months after natural infection. These nAb responses in previously seropositive individuals can be significantly boosted through immunization with two doses of the CoronaVac (Sinovac) or one dose of the BNT162b2 (BioNTech/Pfizer) vaccines, suggesting a substantial induction of B cell memory responses. Noteworthy, three obese previously seropositive individuals failed to mount a booster response upon vaccination, warranting further studies in this population. Immunization of naïve individuals with two doses of the CoronaVac vaccine or one dose of the BNT162b2 vaccine elicited similar levels of nAbs compared to seropositive individuals 4.2 to 13.3 months post-infection with SARS-CoV-2. Thus, this preliminary evidence suggests that both, seropositive and naïve individuals, require two doses of CoronaVac to ensure the induction of robust nAb titers.

A household case evidences shorter shedding of SARS-CoV-2 in naturally infected cats compared to their human owners.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been detected in domestic and wild cats. However, little is known about natural viral infections of domestic cats, although their importance for modelling disease spread, informing strategies for managing positive human-animal relationships and disease prevention. Here, we describe the SARS-CoV-2 infection in a household of two human adults and sibling cats (one male and two females) using real-time RT-PCR, an ELISA test, viral sequencing, and virus isolation. On May 5th, 2020, the cat-owners tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Two days later, the male cat showed mild respiratory symptoms and tested positive. Four days after the male cat, the two female cats became positive, asymptomatically. Also, one human and one cat showed antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. All cats excreted detectable SARS-CoV-2 RNA for a shorter duration than humans and viral sequences analysis confirmed human-to-cat transmission. We could not determine if cat-to-cat transmission also occurred.

Viral shedding dynamics reveals sputum as a reliable and cost-saving specimen for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis within the first 10 days since symptom onset: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-2) is challenging global public health, due to an increasing demand for testing and the shortage of diagnostic supplies. Nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) is considered the optimal sample for SARS-CoV2 diagnosis and sputum (SPT) has been proposed as an economic alternative. However, the temporal concordance of diagnosis in NPS and SPT has not been addressed. METHODS: Through a longitudinal study we compared the shedding dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 RNA evaluated by RT-qPCR in serially collected SPT and NPS obtained from 82 ambulatory and hospitalized patients during acute infection and convalescence. The concordance during the follow-up and cost analysis between both collected specimens was evaluated. FINDINGS: We analyzed 379 samples, 177 NPS and 202 SPT. The highest proportion of positive samples was detected within the first 15 days after the symptoms onset. The median time of positivity was higher for NPS (median= 25 days) than SPT (median= 21 days). There was no significant difference in the median RT-qPCR CT values between both sample types. The temporal categorization of matched-paired samples indicated substantial correlation (r=0.6023) and substantial agreement (87.23%) during the first ten days since symptoms onset (kappa = 0.697). A cost analysis demonstrated a significant saving when the SPT specimen was used. INTERPRETATION: Sputum is a feasible and cost-saving alternative to NPS, providing an equivalent value for the detection and follow-up of SARS-CoV-2 RNA.

Enhanced Arsenic Tolerance in Triticum aestivum Inoculated with Arsenic-Resistant and Plant Growth Promoter Microorganisms from a Heavy Metal-Polluted Soil.

In soils multi-contaminated with heavy metal and metalloids, the establishment of plant species is often hampered due to toxicity. This may be overcome through the inoculation of beneficial soil microorganisms. In this study, two arsenic-resistant bacterial isolates, classified as Pseudomonas gessardii and Brevundimonas intermedia, and two arsenic-resistant fungi, classified as Fimetariella rabenhortii and Hormonema viticola, were isolated from contaminated soil from the Puchuncaví valley (Chile). Their ability to produce indoleacetic acid and siderophores and mediate phosphate solubilization as plant growth-promoting properties were evaluated, as well as levels of arsenic resistance. A real time PCR applied to Triticum aestivum that grew in soil inoculated with the bacterial and fungal isolates was performed to observe differences in the relative expression of heavy metal stress defense genes. The minimum inhibitory concentration of the bacterial strains to arsenate was up to 7000 mg·L-1 and that of the fungal strains was up to 2500 mg·L-1. P. gessardi was able to produce siderophores and solubilize phosphate; meanwhile, B. intermedia and both fungi produced indoleacetic acid. Plant dry biomass was increased and the relative expression of plant metallothionein, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase and phytochelatin synthase genes were overexpressed when P. gessardii plus B. intermedia were inoculated.

Adaptation and tolerance mechanisms developed by mycorrhizal Bipinnula fimbriata plantlets (Orchidaceae) in a heavy metal-polluted ecosystem.

The adaptation and performance of orchid mycorrhizae in heavy metal-polluted soils have been poorly explored. In the present study, proteomic and metabolic approaches were used to detect physiological changes in orchid roots established in a heavy metal-polluted soil and to ascertain whether mycorrhizal fungi affect the metabolic responses of roots. Young Bipinnula fimbriata plantlets were established in control and heavy metal-polluted soils in a greenhouse. After 14 months, exudation of root organic acids, phenolics, percentage of mycorrhization, mineral content, and differential protein accumulation were measured. More root biomass, higher root colonization, and higher exudation rates of citrate, succinate, and malate were detected in roots growing in heavy metal-polluted soils. Higher accumulation of phosphorus and heavy metals was found inside mycorrhizal roots under metal stress. Under non-contaminated conditions, non-mycorrhizal root segments showed enhanced accumulation of proteins related to carbon metabolism and stress, whereas mycorrhizal root segments stimulated protein synthesis related to pathogen control, cytoskeleton modification, and sucrose metabolism. Under heavy metal stress, the proteome profile of non-mycorrhizal root segments indicates a lower induction of defense mechanisms, which, together with the stimulation of enzymes related to carotenoid biosynthesis and cell wall organization, may positively influence mycorrhizal fungi colonization. The results point to different metabolic strategies in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal root segments that are exposed to heavy metal stress. The results indicate that root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi is stimulated to alleviate the negative effects of heavy metals in the orchids.

Genome-wide expression profile of the response to spinal cord injury in Xenopus laevis reveals extensive differences between regenerative and non-regenerative stages.

BACKGROUND: Xenopus laevis has regenerative and non-regenerative stages. As a tadpole, it is fully capable of functional recovery after a spinal cord injury, while its juvenile form (froglet) loses this capability during metamorphosis. We envision that comparative studies between regenerative and non-regenerative stages in Xenopus could aid in understanding why spinal cord regeneration fails in human beings. RESULTS: To identify the mechanisms that allow the tadpole to regenerate and inhibit regeneration in the froglet, we obtained a transcriptome-wide profile of the response to spinal cord injury in Xenopus regenerative and non-regenerative stages. We found extensive transcriptome changes in regenerative tadpoles at 1 day after injury, while this was only observed by 6 days after injury in non-regenerative froglets. In addition, when comparing both stages, we found that they deployed a very different repertoire of transcripts, with more than 80% of them regulated in only one stage, including previously unannotated transcripts. This was supported by gene ontology enrichment analysis and validated by RT-qPCR, which showed that transcripts involved in metabolism, response to stress, cell cycle, development, immune response and inflammation, neurogenesis, and axonal regeneration were regulated differentially between regenerative and non-regenerative stages. CONCLUSIONS: We identified differences in the timing of the transcriptional response and in the inventory of regulated transcripts and biological processes activated in response to spinal cord injury when comparing regenerative and non-regenerative stages. These genes and biological processes provide an entry point to understand why regeneration fails in mammals. Furthermore, our results introduce Xenopus laevis as a genetic model organism to study spinal cord regeneration.

Metabolic and transcriptomic response of the wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain EC1118 after an oxygen impulse under carbon-sufficient, nitrogen-limited fermentative conditions.

During alcoholic fermentation, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is exposed to continuously changing environmental conditions, such as decreasing sugar and increasing ethanol concentrations. Oxygen, a critical nutrient to avoid stuck and sluggish fermentations, is only discretely available throughout the process after pump-over operation. In this work, we studied the physiological response of the wine yeast S. cerevisiae strain EC1118 to a sudden increase in dissolved oxygen, simulating pump-over operation. With this aim, an impulse of dissolved oxygen was added to carbon-sufficient, nitrogen-limited anaerobic continuous cultures. Results showed that genes related to mitochondrial respiration, ergosterol biosynthesis, and oxidative stress, among other metabolic pathways, were induced after the oxygen impulse. On the other hand, mannoprotein coding genes were repressed. The changes in the expression of these genes are coordinated responses that share common elements at the level of transcriptional regulation. Beneficial and detrimental effects of these physiological processes on wine quality highlight the dual role of oxygen in 'making or breaking wines'. These findings will facilitate the development of oxygen addition strategies to optimize yeast performance in industrial fermentations.

Calidad microbiológica del agua de un área agrícola-ganadera del centro sur de Chile y su posible implicancia en la salud humana / Microbiological quality of water in livestock area of southern Chile and its possible implications on human health

Introduction: A significant proportion of water for human consumption has an underground origin becoming 80% in Chilean rural areas where profound wells represent the only search of water for human and animal beverage. Aim: To study the microbiological quality of water from agricultural land for livestock production in the province of Valdivia (40°S), Chile and its potential impact on human health. Material and Method: Water samples were collected monthly (2008 - 2009), at the entrance and exit of a water stream running through the field and in well water used for human and animal consumption. The total coliform (Tc) and Escherichia coli were determined by the confirmatory method Quanti-Tray together with other physicochemical assessments in the water and climatic variables. Results: In samples from the stream water and wells, the Most Probable Number of Tc and E. coli exceeded the standard Chilean Norm of Water Quality (NCh 409/1) for human consumption. Conclusion: These results show the need to regulate the environmental impact of farming and cattle production and to monitor the drinking water to meet the minimum standards of health protection.

Introducción: Parte importante del agua para consumo humano corresponde a agua subterránea, alcanzando un 80% en áreas rurales de Chile, donde los pozos profundos son la única fuente de agua de bebida para consumo humano y animal. Objetivo: Estudiar la calidad microbiológica del agua de un predio agrícola-ganadero en la provincia de Valdivia (40° S), Chile, y su posible impacto en la salud humana. Material y Método: Muestras de agua fueron recolectadas mensualmente (2008-2009), a la entrada y salida de un estero que atraviesa el predio y en agua de pozos usadas para consumo humano y animal. Las especies coliformes totales (Ct) y Escherichia coli se determinaron por el método confirmativo Quanti-Tray, se evaluaron variables físico-químicas del agua y climáticas del sitio. Resultados: En las muestras de agua del estero y pozos el número más probable de Ct y E. coli sobrepasaron la norma chilena de calidad del agua (NCh 409/1) para consumo humano. Conclusión: Estos resultados muestran la necesidad de regular el impacto ambiental de la actividad agrícola-ganadera y monitorear el agua de bebida para cumplir con los estándares mínimos de protección de la salud.

Transcriptomics using next generation sequencing technologies.

Next generation sequencing technologies may now be applied to the study of transcriptomics. RNA-Seq or RNA sequencing employs high-throughput sequencing of complementary DNA fragments delivering a transcriptional profile. In this chapter, we aim to provide a starting point for Xenopus researchers planning on starting an RNA-Seq transcriptomics study. We begin by providing a section on template isolation and library preparation. The next section comprises the main bioinformatics procedures that need to be performed for raw data processing, normalization, and differential gene expression. Finally, we have included a section on studying deep sequencing results in Xenopus, which offers general guidance as to what can be done in this model.

Characterization of small RNAs in X. tropicalis gastrulae.

Here, we report and characterize deep sequencing data and bioinformatics analysis of small RNAs from X. tropicalis gastrula. A total of 17,553,124 reads with perfect match to the genome derived from 2,616,053 unique sequences were identified. Seventy-seven percent of theses sequences were not found in previous reports from X. tropicalis oocytes and somatic tissues. Bioinformatics analyses indicate that a large fraction of the small RNAs are PIWI-interacting RNAs. Up to 23.9% of small RNAs mapped to transposable elements and 27% to genic regions. Most of the abundant transposon-derived small RNAs are found in oocyte and gastrula libraries, suggesting that transposons also need to be silenced during early embryonic development. Importantly, novel clusters of piRNAs whose expression is activated after zygotic transcription begins were identified in the genome of X. tropicalis. Additionally, miRNAs were also identified and many of them are not present in oocytes, suggesting that miRNA expression is stage-specific. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first high throughput data release and bioinformatics characterization of small RNAs during Xenopus early embryonic development.

Computer-based annotation of putative AraC/XylS-family transcription factors of known structure but unknown function.

Currently, about 20 crystal structures per day are released and deposited in the Protein Data Bank. A significant fraction of these structures is produced by research groups associated with the structural genomics consortium. The biological function of many of these proteins is generally unknown or not validated by experiment. Therefore, a growing need for functional prediction of protein structures has emerged. Here we present an integrated bioinformatics method that combines sequence-based relationships and three-dimensional (3D) structural similarity of transcriptional regulators with computer prediction of their cognate DNA binding sequences. We applied this method to the AraC/XylS family of transcription factors, which is a large family of transcriptional regulators found in many bacteria controlling the expression of genes involved in diverse biological functions. Three putative new members of this family with known 3D structure but unknown function were identified for which a probable functional classification is provided. Our bioinformatics analyses suggest that they could be involved in plant cell wall degradation (Lin2118 protein from Listeria innocua, PDB code 3oou), symbiotic nitrogen fixation (protein from Chromobacterium violaceum, PDB code 3oio), and either metabolism of plant-derived biomass or nitrogen fixation (protein from Rhodopseudomonas palustris, PDB code 3mn2).

Characterization of small RNAs in Xenopus tropicalis gastrulae.

Here, we report and characterize deep sequencing data and bioinformatics analysis of small RNAs from Xenopus tropicalis gastrula. A total of 17,553,124 reads with perfect match to the genome derived from 2,616,053 unique sequences were identified. Seventy-seven percent of theses sequences were not found in previous reports from X. tropicalis oocytes and somatic tissues. Bioinformatics analyses indicate that a large fraction of the small RNAs are PIWI-interacting RNAs. Up to 23.9% of small RNAs mapped to transposable elements and 27% to genic regions. Most of abundant transposable derived small RNAs are found in oocyte and gastrula libraries, suggesting that transposon needs to be silenced also during early development. Additionally, miRNAs were identified and many of them are not present in oocytes, suggesting that miRNA expression is stage specific. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first high throughput data release and bioinformatics characterization of small RNAs during Xenopus development.

[Microbiological quality of water in livestock area of southern Chile and its possible implications on human health]. / Calidad microbiológica del agua de un área agrícola-ganadera del centro sur de Chile y su posible implicancia en la salud humana.

INTRODUCTION: A significant proportion of water for human consumption has an underground origin becoming 80% in Chilean rural areas where profound wells represent the only search of water for human and animal beverage. AIM: To study the microbiological quality of water from agricultural land for livestock production in the province of Valdivia (40°S), Chile and its potential impact on human health. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Water samples were collected monthly (2008 - 2009), at the entrance and exit of a water stream running through the field and in well water used for human and animal consumption. The total coliform (Tc) and Escherichia coli were determined by the confirmatory method Quanti-Tray together with other physicochemical assessments in the water and climatic variables. RESULTS: In samples from the stream water and wells, the Most Probable Number of Tc and E. coli exceeded the standard Chilean Norm of Water Quality (NCh 409/1) for human consumption. CONCLUSION: These results show the need to regulate the environmental impact of farming and cattle production and to monitor the drinking water to meet the minimum standards of health protection.