Increasing the Dye Payload of Cetuximab-IRDye800CW Enables Photodynamic Therapy.

Cetuximab (Cet)-IRDye800CW, among other antibody-IRDye800CW conjugates, is a potentially effective tool for delineating tumor margins during fluorescence image-guided surgery (IGS). However, residual disease often leads to recurrence. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) following IGS is proposed as an approach to eliminate residual disease but suffers from a lack of molecular specificity for cancer cells. Antibody-targeted PDT offers a potential solution for this specificity problem. In this study, we show, for the first time, that Cet-IRDye800CW is capable of antibody-targeted PDT in vitro when the payload of dye molecules is increased from 2 (clinical version) to 11 per antibody. Cet-IRDye800CW (1:11) produces singlet oxygen, hydroxyl radicals, and peroxynitrite upon activation with 810 nm light. In vitro assays on FaDu head and neck cancer cells confirm that Cet-IRDye800CW (1:11) maintains cancer cell binding specificity and is capable of inducing up to ∼90% phototoxicity in FaDu cancer cells. The phototoxicity of Cet-IRDye800CW conjugates using 810 nm light follows a dye payload-dependent trend. Cet-IRDye800CW (1:11) is also found to be more phototoxic to FaDu cancer cells and less toxic in the dark than the approved chromophore indocyanine green, which can also act as a PDT agent. We propose that antibody-targeted PDT using high-payload Cet-IRDye800CW (1:11) could hold potential for eliminating residual disease postoperatively when using sustained illumination devices, such as fiber optic patches and implantable surgical bed balloon applicators. This approach could also potentially be applicable to a wide variety of resectable cancers that are amenable to IGS-PDT, using their respective approved full-length antibodies as a template for high-payload IRDye800CW conjugation.

The ORF45 Protein of Kaposi Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Is an Inhibitor of p53 Signaling during Viral Reactivation.

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a carcinogenic double-stranded DNA virus and the etiological agent of Kaposi sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD). To prevent premature apoptosis and support its replication cycle, KSHV expresses a series of open reading frames (ORFs) that regulate signaling by the p53 tumor suppressor protein. Here, we describe a novel viral inhibitor of p53 encoded by KSHV ORF45 and identify its mechanism of action. ORF45 binds to p53 and prevents its interactions with USP7, a p53 deubiquitinase. This results in decreased p53 accumulation, localization of p53 to the cytoplasm, and diminished transcriptional activity. IMPORTANCE Unlike in other cancers, the tumor suppressor protein p53 is rarely mutated in Kaposi sarcoma (KS). Rather, Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) inactivates p53 through multiple viral proteins. One possible therapeutic approach to KS is the activation of p53, which would result in apoptosis and tumor regression. In this regard, it is important to understand all the mechanisms used by KSHV to modulate p53 signaling. This work describes a novel inhibitor of p53 signaling and a potential drug target, ORF45, and identifies the mechanisms of its action.

Novel modulators of p53-signaling encoded by unknown genes of emerging viruses.

The p53 transcription factor plays a key role both in cancer and in the cell-intrinsic response to infections. The ORFEOME project hypothesized that novel p53-virus interactions reside in hitherto uncharacterized, unknown, or hypothetical open reading frames (orfs) of human viruses. Hence, 172 orfs of unknown function from the emerging viruses SARS-Coronavirus, MERS-Coronavirus, influenza, Ebola, Zika (ZIKV), Chikungunya and Kaposi Sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) were de novo synthesized, validated and tested in a functional screen of p53 signaling. This screen revealed novel mechanisms of p53 virus interactions and two viral proteins KSHV orf10 and ZIKV NS2A binding to p53. Originally identified as the target of small DNA tumor viruses, these experiments reinforce the notion that all viruses, including RNA viruses, interfere with p53 functions. These results validate this resource for analogous systems biology approaches to identify functional properties of uncharacterized viral proteins, long non-coding RNAs and micro RNAs.

T cell inactivation by poxviral B22 family proteins increases viral virulence.

Infections with monkeypox, cowpox and weaponized variola virus remain a threat to the increasingly unvaccinated human population, but little is known about their mechanisms of virulence and immune evasion. We now demonstrate that B22 proteins, encoded by the largest genes of these viruses, render human T cells unresponsive to stimulation of the T cell receptor by MHC-dependent antigen presentation or by MHC-independent stimulation. In contrast, stimuli that bypass TCR-signaling are not inhibited. In a non-human primate model of monkeypox, virus lacking the B22R homologue (MPXVΔ197) caused only mild disease with lower viremia and cutaneous pox lesions compared to wild type MPXV which caused high viremia, morbidity and mortality. Since MPXVΔ197-infected animals displayed accelerated T cell responses and less T cell dysregulation than MPXV US2003, we conclude that B22 family proteins cause viral virulence by suppressing T cell control of viral dissemination.

Modulation of the host immune response by cowpox virus.

Cowpox virus, a zoonotic poxvirus endemic to Eurasia, infects a large number of host species which makes its eradication impossible. The elimination of world-wide smallpox vaccination programs renders the human population increasingly susceptible to infection by orthopoxviruses resulting in a growing number of zoonotic infections including CPXV transmitted from domestic animals to humans. The ability of CPXV to infect a wide range of mammalian host is likely due to the fact that, among the orthopoxviruses, CPXV encodes the most complete set of open reading frames expected to encode immunomodulatory proteins. This renders CPXV particularly interesting for studying poxviral strategies to evade and counteract the host immune responses.

Cowpox virus inhibits the transporter associated with antigen processing to evade T cell recognition.

Cowpox virus encodes an extensive array of putative immunomodulatory proteins, likely contributing to its wide host range, which includes zoonotic infections in humans. Unlike Vaccinia virus, cowpox virus prevents stimulation of CD8(+) T cells, a block that correlated with retention of MHC class I in the endoplasmic reticulum by the cowpox virus protein CPXV203. However, deletion of CPXV203 did not restore MHC class I transport or T cell stimulation. Here, we demonstrate the contribution of an additional viral protein, CPXV12, which interferes with MHC class I/peptide complex formation by inhibiting peptide translocation by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). Importantly, human and mouse MHC class I transport and T cell stimulation was restored upon deletion of both CPXV12 and CPXV203, suggesting that these unrelated proteins independently mediate T cell evasion in multiple hosts. CPXV12 is a truncated version of a putative NK cell ligand, indicating that poxviral gene fragments can encode new, unexpected functions.

A host cell membrane protein, golgin-97, is essential for poxvirus morphogenesis.

Acquisition of the membrane and genome encapsidation is an important step in the replication of enveloped viruses. The biogenesis of the poxviral primary membrane and the core as well as the mechanisms of their maturation are poorly understood. Using RNA interference approach, we demonstrate that a cellular trans-Golgi network membrane protein, golgin-97, is essential for virus replication. Analysis of the virion morphology in the cells depleted of golgin-97 shows that the protein is required for the virus morphogenesis and, in particular, for the formation of the first infectious virus form, mature virus, but not its precursor, immature virus. This suggests that golgin-97 may be involved in the maturation of the virus core and, potentially, the virus membrane.

Virion tails of Beet yellows virus: Coordinated assembly by three structural proteins.

Filamentous virions of Beet yellows virus contain a long body formed by a major capsid protein and a short tail that is assembled by a minor capsid protein (CPm), an Hsp70-homolog (Hsp70h), a 64-kDa protein (p64), and a 20-kDa protein (p20). Using mutation analysis and newly developed in planta assays, here we investigate the genetic requirements for the tail assembly. We show that the inactivation of CPm dramatically reduces incorporation of both Hsp70h and p64. Furthermore, inactivation of Hsp70h prevents incorporation of p64 into virions and vice versa. Hsp70h and p64 are each required for efficient incorporation of CPm. We also show that the tails possessing normal relative amounts of CPm, Hsp70h, and p64 can be formed in the absence of the major capsid protein and p20. Similar to the tails isolated from the wild-type virions, these mutant tails encapsidate the approximately 700 nt-long, 5'-terminal segments of the viral RNA. Taken together, our results imply that CPm, Hsp70h and p64 act cooperatively to encapsidate a defined region of the closterovirus genome.

A trans-Golgi network resident protein, golgin-97, accumulates in viral factories and incorporates into virions during poxvirus infection.

Poxviruses are the only DNA viruses known to replicate and assemble in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Poxvirus morphogenesis is a complicated process in which four distinct infectious forms of the virus are produced: intracellular mature virus, intracellular enveloped virus, cell-associated enveloped virus, and extracellular enveloped virus. The source of primary membrane wrapping the intracellular mature virus, the first infectious form, is still unknown. Although the membrane was suggested to originate from the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment, none of the marker proteins from this or any other cell compartments has been found in the intracellular mature virus. Thus, it was hypothesized that the membrane is either extensively modified by the virus or synthesized de novo. In the work described here, we demonstrate that a host cell protein residing in the trans-Golgi network membrane, golgin-97, is transported to the sites of virus replication and assembly and becomes incorporated into the virions during poxvirus infection. Inside the virion, golgin-97 is associated with the insoluble core protein fraction. Being able to adopt a long rod-like structure, the protein apparently extends through the virion envelope and protrudes from its surface. Here we discuss the potential role and functions of golgin-97 in poxvirus replication and propose two working models.

The 64-kilodalton capsid protein homolog of Beet yellows virus is required for assembly of virion tails.

The filamentous virion of the closterovirus Beet yellows virus (BYV) consists of a long body formed by the major capsid protein (CP) and a short tail composed of the minor capsid protein (CPm) and the virus-encoded Hsp70 homolog. By using nano-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and biochemical analyses, we show here that the BYV 64-kDa protein (p64) is the fourth integral component of BYV virions. The N-terminal domain of p64 is exposed at the virion surface and is accessible to antibodies and mild trypsin digestion. In contrast, the C-terminal domain is embedded in the virion and is inaccessible to antibodies or trypsin. The C-terminal domain of p64 is shown to be homologous to CP and CPm. Mutation of the signature motifs of capsid proteins of filamentous RNA viruses in p64 results in the formation of tailless virions, which are unable to move from cell to cell. These results reveal the dual function of p64 in tail assembly and BYV motility and support the concept of the virion tail as a specialized device for BYV cell-to-cell movement.