Exogenous Application of dsRNA in Plant Protection: Efficiency, Safety Concerns and Risk Assessment.

The use of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) for plant protection shows great potential as a sustainable alternative to traditional pesticides. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on using exogenous dsRNA in plant protection and includes the latest findings on the safety and efficiency of this strategy. The review also emphasizes the need for a cautious and comprehensive approach, considering safety considerations such as off-target effects and formulation challenges. The regulatory landscape in different regions is also discussed, underscoring the need for specific guidelines tailored to dsRNA-based pesticides. The review provides a crucial resource for researchers, regulators, and industry stakeholders, promoting a balanced approach incorporating innovation with thorough safety assessments. The continuous dialog emphasized in this review is essential for shaping the future of dsRNA-based plant protection. As the field advances, collaboration among scientists, regulators, and industry partners will play a vital role in establishing guidelines and ensuring the responsible, effective, and sustainable use of dsRNA in agriculture.

Potential Impact of Global Warming on Virus Propagation in Infected Plants and Agricultural Productivity.

The increasing pace of global warming and climate instability will challenge the management of pests and diseases of cultivated plants. Several reports have shown that increases in environmental temperature can enhance the cell-to-cell and systemic propagation of viruses within their infected hosts. These observations suggest that earlier and longer periods of warmer weather may cause important changes in the interaction between viruses and their host's plants, thus posing risks of new viral diseases and outbreaks in agriculture and the wild. As viruses target plasmodesmata (PD) for cell-to-cell spread, these cell wall pores may play yet unknown roles in the temperature-sensitive regulation of intercellular communication and virus infection. Understanding the temperature-sensitive mechanisms in plant-virus interactions will provide important knowledge for protecting crops against diseases in a warmer climate.

Analyzing the G3BP-like gene family of Arabidopsis thaliana in early turnip mosaic virus infection.

The Arabidopsis thaliana genome encodes several genes that are known or predicted to participate in the formation of stress granules (SG). One family of genes encodes for Ras GTPase-activating protein-binding protein (G3BP)-like proteins. Seven genes were identified, of which one of the members was already shown to interact with plant virus proteins in a previous study. A phylogenetic and tissue-specific expression analysis, including laser-dissected phloem, by qRT-PCRs was performed and the sub-cellular localization of individual AtG3BP::EYFP fluorescent fusion proteins expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana epidermal cells was observed. Individual AtG3BP-protein interactions in planta were studied using the bimolecular fluorescence complementation approach in combination with confocal imaging in living cells. In addition, the early and late induction of G3BP-like expression upon Turnip mosaic virus infection was investigated by RNAseq and qRT-PCR. The results showed a high divergence of transcription frequency in the different plant tissues, promiscuous protein-protein interaction within the G3BP-like gene family, and a general induction by a viral infection with TuMV in A. thaliana. The information gained from these studies leads to a better understanding of stress granules, in particular their molecular mode of action in the plant and their role in plant virus infection.

Turnip mosaic virus in oilseed rape activates networks of sRNA-mediated interactions between viral and host genomes.

Virus-induced plant diseases in cultivated plants cause important damages in yield. Although the mechanisms of virus infection are intensely studied at the cell biology level, only little is known about the molecular dialog between the invading virus and the host genome. Here we describe a combinatorial genome-wide approach to identify networks of sRNAs-guided post-transcriptional regulation within local Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) infection sites in Brassica napus leaves. We show that the induction of host-encoded, virus-activated small interfering RNAs (vasiRNAs) observed in virus-infected tissues is accompanied by site-specific cleavage events on both viral and host RNAs that recalls the activity of small RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISC). Cleavage events also involve virus-derived siRNA (vsiRNA)-directed cleavage of target host transcripts as well as cleavage of viral RNA by both host vasiRNAs and vsiRNAs. Furthermore, certain coding genes act as virus-activated regulatory hubs to produce vasiRNAs for the targeting of other host genes. The observations draw an advanced model of plant-virus interactions and provide insights into the complex regulatory networking at the plant-virus interface within cells undergoing early stages of infection.

Nucleic acid-mediated PAMP-triggered immunity in plants.

With the discovery that pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) is active against virus infection in plants less than a decade ago, we began to understand that antiviral immunity goes far beyond RNA silencing and resistance gene-mediated immunity and is much more complex than previously thought. Since then, receptor kinases, signaling components and outputs, and viral suppressors of PTI were discovered and double-stranded RNAs as well as possibly other viral nucleic acids identified as candidates for viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in plants. Here, we summarize recent progress in PAMP-triggered antiviral immunity in plants and discuss possible crosstalk between dsRNA-triggered defense pathways.

Bacteriological and geochemical features of the groundwater resources: Kettara abandoned mine (Morocco).

Waste water of the Kettara village, as well as the abandoned tailings, constitute a potential environmental issue with direct consequences on air, soil, water resources qualities and, on human health. In this paper, experimental investigations examine the environmental impact which is induced by the wastewater, mine tailings and the lithological factors of rocks. This multidisciplinary research allows to i) understand the transfer of the Metallic Trace Elements (selenium, arsenic, nickel and zinc) and sulfate ions in the fractured shales media, ii) to assess the water potability by using the microbiological analysis. The microbiological results reveal the domestic impact by the presence of several kinds of bacteria in the groundwater resources: E. coli, Fecal coliforms, Total coliforms, Enterococci, Mesophilic Aerobic Flora, Sulphite-reducing bacteria and Salmonella. Selenium, arsenic and the bacteriological contamination of the groundwater could be explained by five kinds of factors: i) the geological formations and the nature of the hydrogeological system (unconfined layer), ii) the groundwater flow, the hydraulic relation between the hydrogeological wells and, the fractures network in the shale aquifer. The piezometric map allows to highlight the groundwater flow from the North-East to North-West and to the South-West, the drainage axis towards the P21 well and the presence of the dividing axis in the contaminated zone by the arsenic, iii) the absence of the unhealthy habitats with permeable traditional septic tanks in the village; iv) the transfer of the spreading animal excrements from the soil to groundwater and, v) the migration of the wastewater towards downstream of the groundwater flow. The presence of the reed beds could explain the reduction of bacteria in the hydrogeological wells of the study area.

Groundwater assessment and environmental impact in the abandoned mine of Kettara (Morocco).

Many questions about the soil pollution due to mining activities have been analyzed by numerous methods which help to evaluate the dispersion of the Metallic Trace Elements (MTE) in the soil and stream sediments of the abandoned mine of Kettara (Morocco). The transport of these MTE could have an important role in the degradation of groundwater and the health of people who are living in the vicinity. The present paper aims to evaluate the groundwater samples from 15 hydrogeological wells. This evaluation concerns the hydrogeological parameters, pH, Electrical conductivity, temperature and the groundwater level, and the geochemical assessment of Mg, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Cu, As, Se, Cd, Sb, Tl and Pb. Furthermore, the Metallic Trace Elements are transported in the saturated zone via the fractures network. The groundwater flow is from the north-east to south-west. The spatial distribution of As, Fe, Zn and Mn is very heterogeneous, with high values observed in the north, upstream, of the mine site. This distribution is maybe related to: i) the existence of hydrogeological structures (dividing and drainage axes); ii) the individualization of the fractures network that affects the shaly lithostratigraphical formation; iii) the transport of the contaminants from the soil towards groundwater; and iv) interaction water/rocks. Some MTE anomalies are linked to the lithology and the fracturation system of the area. Therefore, the groundwater contamination by Arsenic is detected in the hydrogeological wells (E1 and E2). This pollution which is higher than guideline standards of Moroccan drinking water could affect the public health. The hydrogeological and geochemical investigations favor the geological origin (mafic rocks) of this contamination rather than mining activities.

Bioinformatic and expression analysis of the Brassica napus L. cyclophilins.

Cyclophilins (CYPs) are a group of ubiquitous proteins characterized by their ability to bind to the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporin A. The CYP family occurs in a wide range of organisms and contains a conserved peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase domain. In addition to fulfilling a basic role in protein folding, CYPs may also play diverse important roles, e.g. in protein degradation, mRNA processing, development, and stress responses. We performed a genome-wide database survey and identified a total of 94 CYP genes encoding 91 distinct proteins. Sequence alignment analysis of the putative BnCYP cyclophilin-like domains revealed highly conserved motifs. By using RNA-Seq, we could verify the presence of 77 BnCYP genes under control conditions. To identify phloem-specific BnCYP proteins in a complementary approach, we used LC-MS/MS to determine protein abundances in leaf and phloem extracts. We detected 26 BnCYPs in total with 12 being unique to phloem sap. Our analysis provides the basis for future studies concentrating on the functional characterization of individual members of this gene family in a plant of dual importance: as a crop and a model system for polyploidization and long-distance signalling.

Analysis of the role of myosins in targeting proteins to plasmodesmata.

Plasmodesmata (PD) are dynamic cell wall microchannels that facilitate the intercellular trafficking of RNA and protein macromolecules playing cell nonautonomous roles in the orchestration of plant development, growth, and plant defense. The trafficking of macromolecules and organelles within cells depends on cytoskeletal components and their associated motor proteins. Plant viruses evolved to hijack this transport system to move their infectious genomes to PD. Current efforts concentrate on dissecting the role of specific myosin motors in transporting plant or viral proteins to the channels. Here we describe a method that addresses the role of specific myosins by expression of myosin tails that cause the repression of myosin activity in a dominant-negative manner. As an example, we explain the use of myosin tails from Nicotiana benthamiana to address the role of N. benthamiana myosins in the targeting of PLASMODESMATA-LOCATED PROTEIN 1 (PDLP1) to PD.

Myosins VIII and XI play distinct roles in reproduction and transport of tobacco mosaic virus.

Viruses are obligatory parasites that depend on host cellular factors for their replication as well as for their local and systemic movement to establish infection. Although myosin motors are thought to contribute to plant virus infection, their exact roles in the specific infection steps have not been addressed. Here we investigated the replication, cell-to-cell and systemic spread of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) using dominant negative inhibition of myosin activity. We found that interference with the functions of three class VIII myosins and two class XI myosins significantly reduced the local and long-distance transport of the virus. We further determined that the inactivation of myosins XI-2 and XI-K affected the structure and dynamic behavior of the ER leading to aggregation of the viral movement protein (MP) and to a delay in the MP accumulation in plasmodesmata (PD). The inactivation of myosin XI-2 but not of myosin XI-K affected the localization pattern of the 126k replicase subunit and the level of TMV accumulation. The inhibition of myosins VIII-1, VIII-2 and VIII-B abolished MP localization to PD and caused its retention at the plasma membrane. These results suggest that class XI myosins contribute to the viral propagation and intracellular trafficking, whereas myosins VIII are specifically required for the MP targeting to and virus movement through the PD. Thus, TMV appears to recruit distinct myosins for different steps in the cell-to-cell spread of the infection.

Microtubules in viral replication and transport.

Viruses use and subvert host cell mechanisms to support their replication and spread between cells, tissues and organisms. Microtubules and associated motor proteins play important roles in these processes in animal systems, and may also play a role in plants. Although transport processes in plants are mostly actin based, studies, in particular with Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and its movement protein (MP), indicate direct or indirect roles of microtubules in the cell-to-cell spread of infection. Detailed observations suggest that microtubules participate in the cortical anchorage of viral replication complexes, in guiding their trafficking along the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/actin network, and also in developing the complexes into virus factories. Microtubules also play a role in the plant-to-plant transmission of Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) by assisting in the development of specific virus-induced inclusions that facilitate viral uptake by aphids. The involvement of microtubules in the formation of virus factories and of other virus-induced inclusions suggests the existence of aggresomal pathways by which plant cells recruit membranes and proteins into localized macromolecular assemblies. Although studies related to the involvement of microtubules in the interaction of viruses with plants focus on specific virus models, a number of observations with other virus species suggest that microtubules may have a widespread role in viral pathogenesis.

CDC48 function during TMV infection: regulation of virus movement and replication by degradation?

Cell-division-cycle protein 48 (CDC48) is an essential, conserved ATP-driven chaperone in eukaryotic cells, which functions in diverse cellular processes including the targeting of misfolded and aggregated proteins for degradation via proteasomal and aggresomal-autophagic pathways. We recently demonstrated that plant CDC48 localizes to and interacts with Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) movement protein (MP) in ER-associated viral protein inclusions. Our data suggest that CDC48 participates in the clearance of these viral protein inclusions in an ER-assisted protein degradation (ERAD)-like mechanism. As TMV MP-inclusions formed at late infection stages resemble aggresomes, we here propose that TMV MP enters both, ERAD-like and aggresomal pathways in its host cells and that CDC48 coordinates these processes. Moreover, as viruses often exploit host pathways for replication and spread, we propose a model in which CDC48 functions in the degradation pathway of overaccumulating viral protein and also actively participates in the regulation of TMV replication and cell-to-cell movement. 

Modification of the increased accumulation of plants microRNAs during the infection by tobacco mosaic virus.

RNA silencing is central to the struggle between plants and viral pathogens. To counteract RNA silencing, viruses have evolved suppressor proteins able to block the mechanism at different stages. Virus-infected plants generally develop viral symptoms characterized by morphological changes. Recent works have shown that viral symptoms have at least two different origins related to sRNAs: these can be either due to the targeting of host genes by siRNAs of viral origins (vsiRNAs) or to alteration of the normal functioning of certain host sRNAs (endogenous sRNAs) important for plant development. Although Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is one of the most studied plant virus worldwide, the origin of its viral symptoms as well as that of the increased accumulation of microRNAs and other sRNAs remain to be clarified. The most recent data are summarized and discussed in the present review.

Control of Tobacco mosaic virus movement protein fate by CELL-DIVISION-CYCLE protein48.

Like many other viruses, Tobacco mosaic virus replicates in association with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and exploits this membrane network for intercellular spread through plasmodesmata (PD), a process depending on virus-encoded movement protein (MP). The movement process involves interactions of MP with the ER and the cytoskeleton as well as its targeting to PD. Later in the infection cycle, the MP further accumulates and localizes to ER-associated inclusions, the viral factories, and along microtubules before it is finally degraded. Although these patterns of MP accumulation have been described in great detail, the underlying mechanisms that control MP fate and function during infection are not known. Here, we identify CELL-DIVISION-CYCLE protein48 (CDC48), a conserved chaperone controlling protein fate in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and animal cells by extracting protein substrates from membranes or complexes, as a cellular factor regulating MP accumulation patterns in plant cells. We demonstrate that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) CDC48 is induced upon infection, interacts with MP in ER inclusions dependent on the MP N terminus, and promotes degradation of the protein. We further provide evidence that CDC48 extracts MP from ER inclusions to the cytosol, where it subsequently accumulates on and stabilizes microtubules. We show that virus movement is impaired upon overexpression of CDC48, suggesting that CDC48 further functions in controlling virus movement by removal of MP from the ER transport pathway and by promoting interference of MP with microtubule dynamics. CDC48 acts also in response to other proteins expressed in the ER, thus suggesting a general role of CDC48 in ER membrane maintenance upon ER stress.

Manipulation of plant host susceptibility: an emerging role for viral movement proteins?

Viruses encode viral suppressors of RNA silencing (VSRs) to counteract RNA silencing, a major antiviral defense response in plants. Recent studies indicate a role of virus-derived siRNAs in manipulating the expression of specific host genes and that certain plant viral movement proteins (MPs) can act as viral enhancers of RNA silencing (VERs) by stimulating the spread of silencing between cells. This suggests that viruses have evolved complex responses capable to efficiently hijack the host RNA silencing machinery to their own advantage. We draw here a dynamic model of the interaction of plant viruses with the silencing machinery during invasion of the host. The model proposes that cells at the spreading front of infection, where infection starts from zero and the VSR levels are supposedly low, represent potential sites for viral manipulation of host gene expression by using virus- and host-derived small RNAs. Viral MPs may facilitate the spread of silencing to produce a wave of small RNA-mediated gene expression changes ahead of the infection to increase host susceptibility. When experimentally ascertained, this hypothetical model will call for re-defining viral movement and the function of viral MPs.

Tubule-guided cell-to-cell movement of a plant virus requires class XI myosin motors.

Cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses occurs via plasmodesmata (PD), organelles that evolved to facilitate intercellular communications. Viral movement proteins (MP) modify PD to allow passage of the virus particles or nucleoproteins. This passage occurs via several distinct mechanisms one of which is MP-dependent formation of the tubules that traverse PD and provide a conduit for virion translocation. The MP of tubule-forming viruses including Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) recruit the plant PD receptors called Plasmodesmata Located Proteins (PDLP) to mediate tubule assembly and virus movement. Here we show that PDLP1 is transported to PD through a specific route within the secretory pathway in a myosin-dependent manner. This transport relies primarily on the class XI myosins XI-K and XI-2. Inactivation of these myosins using dominant negative inhibition results in mislocalization of PDLP and MP and suppression of GFLV movement. We also found that the proper targeting of specific markers of the Golgi apparatus, the plasma membrane, PD, lipid raft subdomains within the plasma membrane, and the tonoplast was not affected by myosin XI-K inhibition. However, the normal tonoplast dynamics required myosin XI-K activity. These results reveal a new pathway of the myosin-dependent protein trafficking to PD that is hijacked by GFLV to promote tubule-guided transport of this virus between plant cells.

Plasmodesmata viewed as specialised membrane adhesion sites.

A significant amount of work has been expended to identify the elusive components of plasmodesmata (PD) to help understand their structure, as well as how proteins are targeted to them. This review focuses on the role that lipid membranes may play in defining PD both structurally and as subcellular targeting addresses. Parallels are drawn to findings in other areas of research which focus on the lateral segregation of membrane domains and the generation of three-dimensional organellar shapes from flat lipid bilayers. We conclude that consideration of the protein-lipid interactions in cell biological studies of PD components and PD-targeted proteins may yield new insights into some of the many open questions regarding these unique structures.

A family of plasmodesmal proteins with receptor-like properties for plant viral movement proteins.

Plasmodesmata (PD) are essential but poorly understood structures in plant cell walls that provide symplastic continuity and intercellular communication pathways between adjacent cells and thus play fundamental roles in development and pathogenesis. Viruses encode movement proteins (MPs) that modify these tightly regulated pores to facilitate their spread from cell to cell. The most striking of these modifications is observed for groups of viruses whose MPs form tubules that assemble in PDs and through which virions are transported to neighbouring cells. The nature of the molecular interactions between viral MPs and PD components and their role in viral movement has remained essentially unknown. Here, we show that the family of PD-located proteins (PDLPs) promotes the movement of viruses that use tubule-guided movement by interacting redundantly with tubule-forming MPs within PDs. Genetic disruption of this interaction leads to reduced tubule formation, delayed infection and attenuated symptoms. Our results implicate PDLPs as PD proteins with receptor-like properties involved the assembly of viral MPs into tubules to promote viral movement.

Vertical transmission of Prunus necrotic ringspot virus: hitch-hiking from gametes to seedling.

The aim of this work was to follow Prunus necrotic ringspot virus (PNRSV) infection in apricot reproductive tissues and transmission of the virus to the next generation. For this, an analysis of viral distribution in apricot reproductive organs was carried out at different developmental stages. PNRSV was detected in reproductive tissues during gametogenesis. The virus was always present in the nucellus and, in some cases, in the embryo sac. Studies within infected seeds at the embryo globular stage revealed that PNRSV infects all parts of the seed, including embryo, endosperm and testa. In the torpedo and bent cotyledon developmental stages, high concentrations of the virus were detected in the testa and endosperm. At seed maturity, PNRSV accumulated slightly more in the embryo than in the cotyledons. In situ hybridization showed the presence of PNRSV RNA in embryos obtained following hand-pollination of virus-free pistils with infected pollen. Interestingly, tissue-printing from fruits obtained from these pistils showed viral RNA in the periphery of the fruits, whereas crosses between infected pistils and infected pollen resulted in a total invasion of the fruits. Taken together, these results shed light on the vertical transmission of PNRSV from gametes to seedlings.

Oxidative stress induction by Prunus necrotic ringspot virus infection in apricot seeds.

Prunus necrotic ringspot rvirus (PNRSV) was able to invade the immature apricot seed including the embryo. The amount of virus was very high inside the embryo compared with that present in the cotyledons. PNRSV infection produced an oxidative stress in apricot seeds as indicated by the increase in lipid peroxidation, measured as thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances. This lipid peroxidation increase was parallelled with an imbalance in the seed antioxidant enzymes. A significant decrease in the ascorbate-GSH cycle enzymes as well as in peroxidase (POX) activity took place in infected seeds, suggesting a low capability to eliminate H2O2. No changes in superoxide dismutase (SOD) or catalase activity were observed. A significant decrease in polyphenoloxidase (PPO) activity was also observed. Native PAGE revealed the presence of three different SOD activity bands in apricot seeds: a Mn-containing SOD and two CuZn-containing SODs. Only an isozyme with catalase, glutathione reductase (GR) or PPO activity was detected in both healthy and infected apricot seeds. Regarding POX staining, three bands with POX activity were detected in native gels in both healthy and infected seeds. The gel results emphasise that the drop detected in POX, GR and PPO activities in PNRSV-infected apricot seeds by kinetic analyses was also evident from the results obtained by native PAGE. The oxidative stress and the imbalance in the antioxidant systems from PNRSV-infected apricot seeds resemble the hypersensitive response observed in some virus-host interactions. This defence mechanism would inactivate PNRSV during seed formation and/or the storage period or even during seed germination. Those results can explain the decrease in seed germination and the low transmission of PNRSV by seeds in apricot trees.