Consumer willingness to invest money and time for benefits of lifestyle behaviour change: an application of the contingent valuation method.

OBJECTIVE: To use contingent valuation (CV) to derive individual consumer values for both health and broader benefits of a public-health intervention directed at lifestyle behaviour change (LBC) and to examine the feasibility and validity of the method. METHOD: Participants of a lifestyle intervention trial (n = 515) were invited to complete an online CV survey. Respondents (n = 312) expressed willingness to invest money and time for changes in life expectancy, health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and broader quality of life aspects. Internal validity was tested for by exploring associations between explanatory variables (i.e. income, paid work, experience and risk factors for cardiovascular diseases) and willingness to invest, and by examining ordering effects and respondents' sensitivity to the scope of the benefits. RESULTS: The majority of respondents (94.3%) attached value to benefits of LBC, and 87.4% were willing to invest both money and time. Respondents were willing to invest more for improvements in HRQOL (€42/month; 3 h/week) and broader quality of life aspects (€40/month; 2.6 h/week) than for improvements in life expectancy (€24/month; 2 h/week). Protest answers were limited (3%) and findings regarding internal validity were mixed. CONCLUSION: The importance of broader quality of life outcomes to consumers suggests that these outcomes are relevant to be considered in the decision making. Our research showed that CV is a feasible method to value both health and broader outcomes of LBC, but generalizability to other areas of public health still needs to be examined. Mixed evidence regarding internal validity pleads for caution to use CV as only the base for decision making.

A review of economic evaluations of behavior change interventions: setting an agenda for research methods and practice.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to review methodological quality of economic evaluations of lifestyle behavior change interventions (LBCIs) and to examine how they address methodological challenges for public health economic evaluation identified in the literature. METHODS: Pubmed and the NHS economic evaluation database were searched for published studies in six key areas for behavior change: smoking, physical activity, dietary behavior, (illegal) drug use, alcohol use and sexual behavior. From included studies (n = 142), we extracted data on general study characteristics, characteristics of the LBCIs, methodological quality and handling of methodological challenges. RESULTS: Economic evaluation evidence for LBCIs showed a number of weaknesses: methods, study design and characteristics of evaluated interventions were not well reported; methodological quality showed several shortcomings and progress with addressing methodological challenges remained limited. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the findings of this review we propose an agenda for improving future evidence to support decision-making. Recommendations for practice include improving reporting of essential study details and increasing adherence with good practice standards. Recommendations for research methods focus on mapping out complex causal pathways for modeling, developing measures to capture broader domains of wellbeing and community outcomes, testing methods for considering equity, identifying relevant non-health sector costs and advancing methods for evidence synthesis.

Consumer preferences for health and nonhealth outcomes of health promotion: results from a discrete choice experiment.

OBJECTIVE: Health promotion (HP) interventions have outcomes that go beyond health. Such broader nonhealth outcomes are usually neglected in economic evaluation studies. To allow for their consideration, insights are needed into the types of nonhealth outcomes that HP interventions produce and their relative importance compared with health outcomes. This study explored consumer preferences for health and nonhealth outcomes of HP in the context of lifestyle behavior change. METHODS: A discrete choice experiment was conducted among participants in a lifestyle intervention (n = 132) and controls (n = 141). Respondents made 16 binary choices between situations that can be experienced after lifestyle behavior change. The situations were described by 10 attributes: future health state value, start point of future health state, life expectancy, clothing size above ideal, days with sufficient relaxation, endurance, experienced control over lifestyle choices, lifestyle improvement of partner and/or children, monetary cost per month, and time cost per week. RESULTS: With the exception of "time cost per week" and "start point of future health state," all attributes significantly determined consumer choices. Thus, both health and nonhealth outcomes affected consumer choice. Marginal rates of substitution between the price attribute and the other attributes revealed that the attributes "endurance," "days with sufficient relaxation," and "future health state value" had the greatest impact on consumer choices. The "life expectancy" attribute had a relatively low impact and for increases of less than 3 years, respondents were not willing to trade. CONCLUSIONS: Health outcomes and nonhealth outcomes of lifestyle behavior change were both important to consumers in this study. Decision makers should respond to consumer preferences and consider nonhealth outcomes when deciding about HP interventions.

Lost productivity in four European countries among patients with rheumatic disorders: are absenteeism and presenteeism transferable?

BACKGROUND: When national pharmacoeconomic guidelines are compared, different recommendations are identified on how to identify, measure and value lost productivity, leading to difficulties when comparing lost productivity estimates across countries. From a transferability point of view, the question arises of whether differences between countries regarding lost productivity are the result of using different calculation methods (methodological differences) or of other between-country differences. When lost productivity data differ significantly across countries, the transferability of lost productivity data across countries is hindered. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate whether country of residence has a significant influence on the quantity of lost productivity among patients with rheumatic disorders. Confounding factors that might differ between countries were corrected for, while the methodology used to identify and measure lost productivity was kept the same. METHODS: This question was investigated by means of an online questionnaire filled out by 200 respondents with a rheumatic disorder per country in four European countries, namely the Netherlands, the UK, Germany and France. In addition to those regarding lost productivity, the questionnaire contained questions about patient characteristics, disability insurance, disease characteristics, quality of life and job characteristics as these variables are expected to influence lost productivity in terms of absenteeism and presenteeism. The data were analysed by regression analyses, in which different components - being absent in last 3 months, number of days absent and presenteeism - of lost productivity were the main outcome measures and other variables, such as gender, impact of disease, shift work, job control, partial disability and overall general health, were corrected for. RESULTS: The results showed that country sometimes has a significant influence on lost productivity and that other variables such as, for example, age, disease severity, number of contract hours, decision latitude, experienced health (as reported on the visual analogue scale) and partial disability, also influence lost productivity. A significant influence of country of residence was found on the variables 'being absent in the last three months', 'number of days absent' and 'quality of work on the last working day'. However, country did not influence 'quantity of work on the last working day' and 'overall presenteeism on the last working day'. CONCLUSION: It can be concluded that country has a significant influence on lost productivity among patients with rheumatic disorders, when corrected for other variables that have an influence on absenteeism and presenteeism. Transferring lost productivity data across countries without adaptation is hindered by the significant differences between countries in this patient group. As a result, transferring lost productivity data, being either monetary values or volumes of productivity losses, between countries can give wrong estimations of the cost effectiveness of treatments.

Exploring non-health outcomes of health promotion: the perspective of participants in a lifestyle behaviour change intervention.

OBJECTIVE: To provide insights into health promotion outcomes that are not captured by conventional measures of health outcome used in economic evaluation studies, such as EQ5D based QALYs. METHODS: Twelve semi-structured interviews and five focus group discussions were conducted with participants of a randomized controlled trial (n=52) evaluating the effectiveness of a theory-based lifestyle intervention in Dutch adults at risk for diabetes mellitus and/or cardiovascular disease. Transcripts were analysed by two independent researchers using a thematic analysis approach. RESULTS: In total we identified twelve non-health outcome themes that were important from the participant perspective. Four of these were reported as direct outcomes of the lifestyle intervention and eight were reported as consequences of lifestyle behaviour change. Our findings also suggest that lifestyle behaviour change may have spillover effects to other people in the participants' direct environment. CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that in the context of lifestyle behaviour change EQ5D based QALYs capture health promotion outcomes only partially. More insights are needed into non-health outcomes and spillover effects produced by health promotion in other contexts and how participants and society value these. Methods to account for these outcomes within an economic evaluation framework need to be developed and tested.

Willingness to pay for a cardiovascular prevention program in highly educated adults: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine adults' Willingness To Pay (WTP) for CardioVascular Disease (CVD) intervention programs of different intensities. METHODS: Three hundred fourteen participants were randomized to two study conditions: (i) CVD risk assessment/communication; (ii) CVD risk assessment/communication + a behavior change program. The behavior change program was aimed at increasing physical activity, reducing saturated fat intake and smoking cessation. It consisted of a tailored Web site and individual coaching with a self-selected dose. At post-assessment, WTP and perceived autonomy support items were included. The intervention dose was registered throughout the trial and post-hoc intervention dose groups were created. Pearson Chi-Square tests, Student's t-tests, one-way analyses of variance were used to examine WTP-differences between the study conditions and intervention dose groups. RESULTS: Twenty-four months after baseline, 61 and 135 participants of the control and intervention condition, respectively, completed the questionnaires. No WTP difference was found between the study conditions. However, participants that selected a higher intervention dose were willing to pay significantly more for their program (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: In general, people want to pay the same amount of money for a CVD prevention program, irrespective of the inclusion of a behavior change program. However, there seems to be an association between the self-selected dose of the latter program and the WTP.

Implementing guidelines into clinical practice: what is the value?

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE: In budget-constrained health systems, decision makers need to consider both the costs and effects of introducing and actively implementing clinical guidance. We aim to demonstrate how, as an alternative to conventional methods, a total net benefit approach to economic evaluation can be used to inform decision making about guidelines and specific implementation strategies, like education or financial incentives. METHODS: Aside from providing more detail on the decision framework, we describe how to collect and analyse the relevant data for calculating the total net benefit of guideline use and the value of implementation. We illustrate the process of decision analysis for a stylized example on improving diabetes care in the UK. For the analysis, economic evidence on intensified glycemic control and that on audit and feedback to promote control is combined with information on diabetes practice. RESULTS: Our illustration demonstrates that the total net benefit of guideline use and the value of implementation can vary substantially, depending on the clinical intervention chosen, the health system being studied and the specific implementation strategies. This also holds for the threshold value for cost-effectiveness, the duration of guideline usage or validity, the size of the patient population served, and the trends and ceiling rates in the implementation of clinical guidance. CONCLUSIONS: In comparison with conventional methods for health economic evaluation, a total net benefit approach allows for the explicit consideration of the current (or future) use of guidelines or guideline recommendations, the cost of implementation and the scope of clinical practice. Decisions made on the basis of the total net benefit of all plausible combinations of clinical guidance and implementation strategies provide optimal patient care and an efficient use of resources.

C-reactive protein point of care testing and physician communication skills training for lower respiratory tract infections in general practice: economic evaluation of a cluster randomized trial.

RATIONALE, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: An economic evaluation of general practitioner (GP) use of C-reactive protein (CRP) point of care test, GP communication skills training, and both GP use of CRP and communication skills training on antibiotic use for lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) in general practice. METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis with a time horizon of 28 days alongside a factorial, cluster randomized trial in 431 patients with LRTIs recruited by 40 GPs. INTERVENTIONS: usual care (control group), GP use of CRP point of care test, GP communication skills training, and both CRP use and communication skills training. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: health care costs. Cost-effectiveness, using the primary outcome measure antibiotic prescribing at index consultation, was assessed by incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER). To adjust for skewed data and clustering, we used non-parametric bootstrapping re-sampling to derive percentile intervals for the mean difference in total costs and the mean difference in effectiveness between the groups. Various implementation scenarios according to GP preference were modelled with corresponding net monetary benefit (NMB) curves based on a given willingness-to-pay (λ) for a 1% lower antibiotic prescribing rate. RESULTS: The total mean cost per patient in the usual care group was €35.96 with antibiotic prescribing of 68%, €37.58 per patient managed by GPs using CRP tests (antibiotic prescribing 39%, ICER €5.79), €25.61 per patient managed by GPs trained in enhanced communication skills (antibiotic prescribing 33%, dominant) and €37.78 per patient managed by GPs using both interventions (antibiotic prescribing 23%, ICER €4.15). The interventions are cost-effective in any combination (yielding NMB at no willingness-to-pay), taking into account GPs' preferences where at least 15% of GPs chose to implement the communication skills training. CONCLUSIONS: The two strategies, both singly and combined, are cost-effective interventions to reduce antibiotic prescribing for LRTI, at no, or low willingness-to-pay. Taking GP preferences into account will optimize investment in strategies to reduce antibiotic prescribing for LRTI.

The effectiveness of the Australian Medical Sheepskin for the prevention of pressure ulcers in somatic nursing home patients: a prospective multicenter randomized-controlled trial (ISRCTN17553857).

A multicenter prospective randomized clinical trial was undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of the Australian Medical Sheepskin (AMS) in the prevention of sacral pressure ulcers in somatic nursing home patients. Patients were randomized at admission and were then followed daily for 30 days. The experimental group received usual care plus an AMS as a layer on the mattress within ultimately 48 hours after admission; the control group received usual care only. Usual care was all the care that nursing wards normally applied for pressure ulcer prevention without any further standardization for this study. A total of 588 patients were randomized (293 control and 295 experimental group) and the data of 543 patients could be analyzed (272 from the control and 271 from the experimental group). The incidence of sacral pressure ulcers grade 1 or higher was significantly lower in the experimental group than in the control group (8.9% vs. 14.7%). In a multilevel analysis on the incidence of pressure ulcers adjusted for Braden risk score, age, and gender, it shows an odds ratio of 0.53 (95% confidence interval: 0.29-0.95), meaning a significant protective effect of the AMS. These results are in line with the results of two earlier trials on the AMS in hospital patients. The majority of patients in our trial that used an AMS rated it positively, but one-third found the sheepskin too warm. We conclude that the AMS is an effective aid in the prevention of sacral pressure ulcers in nursing home patients.

The transferability of valuing lost productivity across jurisdictions. differences between national pharmacoeconomic guidelines.

UNLABELLED: For at least two decades, there has been an intense debate on whether and how to include the value of lost productivity in economic evaluations. This debate is often reflected in pharmacoeconomic guidelines, which have been developed to indicate the methods and requirements for the design, execution, and reporting of economic evaluations in a particular country. OBJECTIVE: To examine what various national pharmacoeconomic guidelines recommend regarding the identification, measurement, and valuation of lost productivity. METHODS: First, the theoretical framework on how lost productivity can be identified, measured, and valued is described. Second, a summary sheet has been used to identify various pharmacoeconomic guidelines recommendations regarding the value of lost productivity. RESULTS: Twenty-two of the 30 guidelines identified recommend performing economic evaluations using the societal perspective. Nevertheless, even if the societal perspective is recommended, it is not always clear how the value of lost productivity should be taken into account. Most guidelines recommend including the costs of absenteeism from paid and/or unpaid work. In addition, although no agreement exists on how lost productivity should be valued, none of the guidelines recommended using the US panel approach for the valuation of lost productivity. DISCUSSION: The different recommendations hinder international transferability of the value of lost productivity. This difficulty is mainly caused by different recommendations regarding identification and valuation. These differences result from the debate and lack of consensus on including the value of lost productivity losses in economic evaluations. It will become easier to transfer data across jurisdictions if all data are reported transparently.

An economic appraisal of the Australian Medical Sheepskin for the prevention of sacral pressure ulcers from a nursing home perspective.

BACKGROUND: Many devices are in use to prevent pressure ulcers, but from most little is known about their effects and costs. One such preventive device is the Australian Medical Sheepskin that has been proven effective in three randomized trials. In this study the costs and savings from the use of the Australian Medical Sheepskin were investigated from the perspective of a nursing home. METHODS: An economic model was developed in which monetary costs and monetary savings in respect of the sheepskin were balanced against each other. The model was applied to a fictional (Dutch) nursing home with 100 beds for rehabilitation patients and a time horizon of one year. Input variables for the model consisted of investment costs for using the sheepskin (purchase and laundry), and savings through the prevented cases of pressure ulcers. The input values for the investment costs and for the effectiveness were empirically based on a trial with newly admitted rehabilitation patients from eight nursing homes. The input values for the costs of pressure ulcer treatment were estimated by means of four different approaches. RESULTS: Investment costs for using the Australian Medical Sheepskin were larger than the monetary savings obtained by preventing pressure ulcers. Use of the Australian Medical Sheepskin involves an additional cost of approximately 2 euro per patient per day. Preventing one case of a sacral pressure ulcer by means of the Australian Medical Sheepskin involves an investment of 2,974 euro when the sheepskin is given to all patients. When the sheepskin is selectively used for more critical patients only, the investment to prevent one case of sacral pressure ulcers decreases to 2,479 euro (pressure ulcer risk patients) or 1,847 euro (ADL-severely impaired patients). The factors with the strongest influence on the balance are the frequency of changing the sheepskin and the costs of washing related to this. The economic model was hampered by considerable uncertainty in the estimations of the costs of pressure ulcer treatment. CONCLUSIONS: From a nursing home perspective, the investment costs for use of the Australian Medical Sheepskin in newly admitted rehabilitation patients are larger than the monetary savings obtained by preventing pressure ulcers.

Cost-utility of a cardiovascular prevention program in highly educated adults: intermediate results of a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: Little is known about the costs and the effects of cardiovascular prevention programs targeted at medical and behavioral risk factors. The aim was to evaluate the cost-utility of a cardiovascular prevention program in a general sample of highly educated adults after 1 year of intervention. METHODS: The participants were randomly assigned to intervention (n = 208) and usual care conditions (n = 106). The intervention consisted of medical interventions and optional behavior-change interventions (e.g., a tailored Web site). Cost data were registered from a healthcare perspective, and questionnaires were used to determine effectiveness (e.g., quality-adjusted life-years [QALYs]). A cost-utility analysis and sensitivity analyses using bootstrapping were performed on the intermediate results. RESULTS: When adjusting for baseline utility differences, the incremental cost was 433 euros and the incremental effectiveness was 0.016 QALYs. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was 26,910 euros per QALY. CONCLUSIONS: The intervention was cost-effective compared with usual care in this sample of highly educated adults after 1 year of intervention. Increased participation would make this intervention highly cost-effective.

Adding cognitive therapy to dietetic treatment is associated with less relapse in obesity.

OBJECTIVE: The treatment of obesity is universally disappointing; although usually some weight loss is reported directly after treatment, eventual relapse to, or even above, former body weight is common. In this study it is tested whether the addition of cognitive therapy to a standard dietetic treatment for obesity might prevent relapse. It is argued that the addition of cognitive therapy might not only be effective in reducing weight and related concerns, depressed mood, and low self-esteem, but also has an enduring effect that lasts beyond the end of treatment. METHODS: Non-eating-disordered overweight and obese participants in a community health center (N=204) were randomly assigned to a group dietetic treatment+cognitive therapy or a group dietetic treatment+physical exercise. RESULTS: Both treatments were quite successful and led to significant decreases in BMI, specific eating psychopathology (binge eating, weight-, shape-, and eating concerns) and general psychopathology (depression, low self-esteem). In the long run, however, the cognitive dietetic treatment was significantly better than the exercise dietetic treatment; participants in the cognitive dietetic treatment maintained all their weight loss, whereas participants in the physical exercise dietetic treatment regained part (25%) of their lost weight. CONCLUSION: Cognitive therapy had enduring effects that lasted beyond the end of treatment. This potential prophylactic effect of cognitive therapy is promising; it might be a new strategy to combat the global epidemic of obesity.

Utilities of the EQ-5D: transferable or not?

BACKGROUND: Within the framework of economic evaluations, the transferability of utility scores between jurisdictions remains unclear. The EQ-5D is a generic instrument for measuring health-related quality of life in economic evaluations, which can be used for comparing utility scores across countries. At present, the EQ-5D has several national value sets or tariffs. Nevertheless, utility estimates from foreign studies are often used directly for cost-effectiveness estimates, without adapting by applying the appropriate national value set. It is unclear if this practice is advisable, due to dissimilarities between the national value sets. OBJECTIVES: To examine the effects of differences in national EQ-5D value sets on absolute and marginal utilities of health states, and determine to what degree these differences can be explained by methodological factors. METHODS: First, the relative importance of the EQ-5D domains for the utility estimates was compared across the 15 value sets. Second, two hypothetical health states for a depressed patient and a pain patient (21232 and 33321) were selected for additional analysis, by comparing the utilities as scored by the value sets. The marginal influence of a one-level deterioration in a domain of these health states on the utility estimate was then determined. Third, the differences between the value sets were examined in more detail by using multilevel analysis to examine the role of methodological differences in the valuation studies. RESULTS: Differences can be perceived between the national value sets of the EQ-5D in the preferences for the domains. The utilities of the two hypothetical health states show that the value sets differ substantially. Furthermore, the differences between the marginal values of the deteriorations are large, which can be explained partly by the type of valuation method. Other methodological differences also influence the value sets. CONCLUSIONS: All results indicate that the differences between the EQ-5D value sets are considerable and should not be ignored. The differences can largely be explained by methodological differences in the valuation studies. The remaining differences may reflect cultural dissimilarities between countries. Therefore, further research should focus on investigating the transferability of utilities across countries or agreeing on a standard to perform valuation studies. For the time being, transferring utilities from one country to another without any adjustment is not advisable.

Modeling the value for money of changing clinical practice change: a stochastic application in diabetes care.

BACKGROUND: Decision making about resource allocation for guideline implementation to change clinical practice is inevitably undertaken in a context of uncertainty surrounding the cost-effectiveness of both clinical guidelines and implementation strategies. Adopting a total net benefit approach, a model was recently developed to overcome problems with the use of combined ratio statistics when analyzing decision uncertainty. OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the stochastic application of the model for informing decision making about the adoption of an audit and feedback strategy for implementing a guideline recommending intensive blood glucose control in type 2 diabetes in primary care in the Netherlands. METHODS: An integrated Bayesian approach to decision modeling and evidence synthesis is adopted, using Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation in WinBUGs. Data on model parameters is gathered from various sources, with effectiveness of implementation being estimated using pooled, random-effects meta-analysis. Decision uncertainty is illustrated using cost-effectiveness acceptability curves and frontier. RESULTS: Decisions about whether to adopt intensified glycemic control and whether to adopt audit and feedback alter for the maximum values that decision makers are willing to pay for health gain. Through simultaneously incorporating uncertain economic evidence on both guidance and implementation strategy, the cost-effectiveness acceptability curves and cost-effectiveness acceptability frontier show an increase in decision uncertainty concerning guideline implementation. CONCLUSIONS: The stochastic application in diabetes care demonstrates that the model provides a simple and useful tool for quantifying and exploring the (combined) uncertainty associated with decision making about adopting guidelines and implementation strategies and, therefore, for informing decisions about efficient resource allocation to change clinical practice.

Cost of care of patients with personality disorders in forensic psychiatric hospitals in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: Ter beschikking stelling (TBS) clinics form the mainstay of forensic psychiatric services in the Netherlands. Their costs are rising, but little is known about how these costs are distributed. AIM: To determine the distribution of service costs for patients with personality disorders in TBS medium security units in the Netherlands. METHOD: Data on service use were extracted retrospectively from the case files of 55 people with personality disorder who are residents in six medium security units within two TBS centres during 2006 (De Rooyse Wissel and Pompestichting). Standard unit costs were obtained for each service, and multiplied by frequency of service use to obtain the total cost of service per patient. A modified version of the Secure Facilities Service Use Schedule was completed. RESULTS: The average daily cost of a bed in a TBS hospital in 2006 was 388 Euros (402 (SD 37) Euros in De Rooyse Wissel; 375 (SD 48) Euros in the Pompestichting). Over half of this was spent on non-treatment fixed costs (overheads). There was considerable difference between patients and between unit variations in the other costs, but about one-third went on costs of staying in department (sociotherapists), and less than 10% each on specific therapeutic interventions or daily activities. About 3% of the budget overall was spent on other costs, but, as these included escorted leaves, at times these costs accounted for a much higher proportion of the per patient expenditure. CONCLUSION: Our results may provide a baseline measurement, with which future costs of TBS treatment can be compared as the services expand and develop. More attention to costs in this way may help to contain budget increases. New studies could examine more specific aspects of treatment or other specific patient groups.

Lifestyle factors of a five-year community-intervention program: the Hartslag Limburg intervention.

BACKGROUND: Community-based health promotion is a widely advocated strategy in public health to favorably alter lifestyle. The aim of this study was to investigate the net effect of a cardiovascular disease-prevention program (Hartslag Limburg) on lifestyle factors after 5 years of intervention (1998-2003). METHODS: In a cohort study, 5-year mean changes in lifestyle factors (energy intake; fat intake; time spent on leisure-time physical activity; walking, bicycling, and sports; and smoking behavior) between subjects from the intervention area (n=2356) and the control area (n=758) were compared for men and women and for those with a low (less than intermediate secondary education) and a moderate (intermediate vocational or higher secondary education) or high (higher vocational education or university) educational level. Adjustments were made for age and the mean of the individual pre- and post-intervention measurement of the variable under study. When stratifying for gender, adjustments were made for educational level, and vice versa. RESULTS: In general, lifestyle factors changed unfavorably in the control group, whereas changes were less pronounced or absent in the intervention group. The adjusted difference in mean change in lifestyle factors between the intervention group and the control group was significant (p

The transferability of economic evaluations:testing the model of Welte.

OBJECTIVE: One of the existing methods to assess the transferability of economic evaluations is the model of Welte, which is a decision-chart method that includes general and specific knockout criteria and a transferability checklist. This study aims to test Welte's model with the help of a case study. METHODS: In this study, foreign studies were transferred to The Netherlands and then compared with a Dutch reference study. In the case study, the cost-effectiveness of physiotherapy was compared with a multidisciplinary treatment. With the help of a systematic search, several foreign studies could be identified. Based on these foreign studies, two different predictions were produced for The Netherlands. In the "all studies prediction," all foreign studies were used. In the "Welte's model prediction," only the foreign studies were used, which passed the general and specific knockout criteria. Both predictions were compared with the Dutch reference case. RESULTS: A total of 14 non-Dutch studies were identified. Seven studies did not pass the general knockout criteria and one study did not pass the specific knockout criteria. As a result, 14 studies were included in the "all studies prediction" and 6 studies in the "Welte's model prediction." The predictions yielded different results and the "Welte's model prediction" proved better on costs than the "all studies prediction." DISCUSSION: The application of Welte's model does influence cost and effects estimates when transferring economic data between countries. However, more cases should be subjected to the Welte transferability model before a final conclusion can be drawn.

Value for money in changing clinical practice: should decisions about guidelines and implementation strategies be made sequentially or simultaneously?

Decisions about clinical practice change, that is, which guidelines to adopt and how to implement them, can be made sequentially or simultaneously. Decision makers adopting a sequential approach first compare the costs and effects of alternative guidelines to select the best set of guideline recommendations for patient management and subsequently examine the implementation costs and effects to choose the best strategy to implement the selected guideline. In an integral approach, decision makers simultaneously decide about the guideline and the implementation strategy on the basis of the overall value for money in changing clinical practice. This article demonstrates that the decision to use a sequential v. an integral approach affects the need for detailed information and the complexity of the decision analytic process. More importantly, it may lead to different choices of guidelines and implementation strategies for clinical practice change. The differences in decision making and decision analysis between the alternative approaches are comprehensively illustrated using 2 hypothetical examples. We argue that, in most cases, an integral approach to deciding about change in clinical practice is preferred, as this provides more efficient use of scarce health-care resources.

Estimating the implicit value of statistical life based on public interventions implemented in The Netherlands.

OBJECTIVES: In the Netherlands, allocation decisions have not yet been explicitly based on the Value of Statistical Life. However, when policy makers decide whether or not to implement life saving interventions this trade-off is made implicitly. This study aimed to gain insights into this trade-off, hereafter referred to as Implicit Value of Statistical Life (IVSL), by means of a retrospective investment analysis of life saving interventions implemented in the Netherlands. METHODS: A literature search was conducted to find life saving intervention cases meeting the requirements for IVSL calculation. A final sample of ten cases was included in the study concerning interventions implemented in different societal sectors. For each case, an IVSL estimate was calculated according to a uniform method. RESULTS: IVSL estimates derived from the intervention cases differed considerably and ranged from 1 euro to almost 11 million euros. Differences were most extreme when comparing IVSL estimates concerning interventions implemented in different societal sectors. However, IVSL estimates also varied greatly between interventions in the same sector and even within the same interventions when critical assumptions were altered. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that there are great imbalances between societal investments for preventing a statistical death. This highlights the need for further deliberation about how to improve transparency of policy decisions. An approach ex ante determining the Value of Statistical Life by means of empirical methods and based on societal preferences might circumvent the problems associated with the IVSL and needs further exploration.