A Comparison of Health Achievements in Rwanda and Burundi.

Strong primary health care systems are essential for implementing universal health coverage and fulfilling health rights entitlements, but disagreement exists over how best to create them. Comparing countries with similar histories, lifestyle practices, and geography but divergent health outcomes can yield insights into possible mechanisms for improvement. Rwanda and Burundi are two such countries. Both faced protracted periods of violence in the 1990s, leading to significant societal upheaval. In subsequent years, Rwanda's improvement in health has been far greater than Burundi's. To understand how this divergence occurred, we studied trends in life expectancy following the periods of instability in both countries, as well as the health policies implemented after these conflicts. We used the World Bank's World Development Indicators to assess trends in life expectancy in the two countries and then evaluated health policy reforms using Walt and Gilson's framework. Following both countries' implementation of health sector policies in 2005, we found a statistically significant increase in life expectancy in Rwanda after adjusting for GDP per capita (14.7 years, 95% CI: 11.4-18.0), relative to Burundi (4.6 years, 95% CI: 1.8-7.5). Strong public sector leadership, investments in health information systems, equity-driven policies, and the use of foreign aid to invest in local capacity helped Rwanda achieve greater health gains compared to Burundi.

Mutations in kelch-like 3 and cullin 3 cause hypertension and electrolyte abnormalities.

Hypertension affects one billion people and is a principal reversible risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Pseudohypoaldosteronism type II (PHAII), a rare Mendelian syndrome featuring hypertension, hyperkalaemia and metabolic acidosis, has revealed previously unrecognized physiology orchestrating the balance between renal salt reabsorption and K(+) and H(+) excretion. Here we used exome sequencing to identify mutations in kelch-like 3 (KLHL3) or cullin 3 (CUL3) in PHAII patients from 41 unrelated families. KLHL3 mutations are either recessive or dominant, whereas CUL3 mutations are dominant and predominantly de novo. CUL3 and BTB-domain-containing kelch proteins such as KLHL3 are components of cullin-RING E3 ligase complexes that ubiquitinate substrates bound to kelch propeller domains. Dominant KLHL3 mutations are clustered in short segments within the kelch propeller and BTB domains implicated in substrate and cullin binding, respectively. Diverse CUL3 mutations all result in skipping of exon 9, producing an in-frame deletion. Because dominant KLHL3 and CUL3 mutations both phenocopy recessive loss-of-function KLHL3 mutations, they may abrogate ubiquitination of KLHL3 substrates. Disease features are reversed by thiazide diuretics, which inhibit the Na-Cl cotransporter in the distal nephron of the kidney; KLHL3 and CUL3 are expressed in this location, suggesting a mechanistic link between KLHL3 and CUL3 mutations, increased Na-Cl reabsorption, and disease pathogenesis. These findings demonstrate the utility of exome sequencing in disease gene identification despite the combined complexities of locus heterogeneity, mixed models of transmission and frequent de novo mutation, and establish a fundamental role for KLHL3 and CUL3 in blood pressure, K(+) and pH homeostasis.

Health workers at the core of the health system: framework and research issues.

This paper presents a framework for the health system with health workers at the core. We review existing health-system frameworks and the role they assign to health workers. Earlier frameworks either do not include health workers as a central feature of system functioning or treat them as one among several components of equal importance. As every function of the health system is either undertaken by or mediated through the health worker, we place the health worker at the center of the health system. Our framework is useful for structuring research on the health workforce and for identifying health-worker research issues. We describe six research issues on the health workforce: metrics to measure the capacity of a health system to deliver healthcare; the contribution of public- vs. private-sector health workers in meeting healthcare needs and demands; the appropriate size, composition and distribution of the health workforce; approaches to achieving health-worker requirements; the adoption and adaption of treatments by health workers; and the training of health workers for horizontally vs. vertically structured health systems.

China's human resources for health: quantity, quality, and distribution.

In this paper, we analyse China's current health workforce in terms of quantity, quality, and distribution. Unlike most countries, China has more doctors than nurses-in 2005, there were 1.9 million licensed doctors and 1.4 million nurses. Doctor density in urban areas was more than twice that in rural areas, with nurse density showing more than a three-fold difference. Most of China's doctors (67.2%) and nurses (97.5%) have been educated up to only junior college or secondary school level. Since 1998 there has been a massive expansion of medical education, with an excess in the production of health workers over absorption into the health workforce. Inter-county inequality in the distribution of both doctors and nurses is very high, with most of this inequality accounted for by within-province inequalities (82% or more) rather than by between-province inequalities. Urban-rural disparities in doctor and nurse density account for about a third of overall inter-county inequality. These inequalities matter greatly with respect to health outcomes across counties, provinces, and strata in China; for instance, a cross-county multiple regression analysis using data from the 2000 census shows that the density of health workers is highly significant in explaining infant mortality.

Health workers and vaccination coverage in developing countries: an econometric analysis.

BACKGROUND: Vaccine-preventable diseases cause more than 1 million deaths among children in developing countries every year. Although health workers are needed to do vaccinations, the role of human resources for health as a determinant of vaccination coverage at the population level has not been investigated. Our aim was to test whether health worker density was positively associated with childhood vaccination coverage in developing countries. METHODS: We did cross-country multiple regression analyses with coverage of three vaccinations--measles-containing vaccine (MCV); diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP3); and poliomyelitis (polio3)--as dependent variables. Aggregate health worker density was an independent variable in one set of regressions; doctor and nurse densities were used separately in another set. We controlled for national income per person, female adult literacy, and land area. FINDINGS: Health worker density was significantly associated with coverage of all three vaccinations (MCV p=0.0024; DTP3 p=0.0004; polio3 p=0.0008). However, when the effects of doctors and nurses were assessed separately, we found that nurse density was significantly associated with coverage of all three vaccinations (MCV p=0.0097; DTP3 p=0.0083; polio3 p=0.0089), but doctor density was not (MCV p=0.7953; DTP3 p=0.7971; polio3 p=0.7885). Female adult literacy was positively associated, and land area negatively associated, with vaccination coverage. National income per person had no effect on coverage. INTERPRETATION: A higher density of health workers (nurses) increases the availability of vaccination services over time and space, making it more likely that children will be vaccinated. After controlling for other determinants, the level of income does not contribute to improved immunisation coverage. Health workers can be a major constraining factor on vaccination coverage in developing countries.

Severe hyperphosphatemia and hypocalcemic tetany after oral laxative administration in a 3-month-old infant.

A 3-month-old infant presented to the pediatric emergency department with respiratory distress and tetany after ingestion of a phosphate-containing oral laxative. The initial phosphorus level was 38.3 mg/dL. With aggressive fluid resuscitation and intravenous calcium administration, the infant completely recovered. Although the risks of phosphate-containing enemas are well described, life-threatening hyperphosphatemia can also result from administration of phosphate-containing oral laxatives. Aggressive fluid hydration is the mainstay of treatment. Intravenous calcium administration may be necessary to avoid hemodynamic collapse despite the theoretical possibility of metastatic calcifications. Physicians should be alerted to the possibility of phosphate toxicity and hypocalcemic tetany in young children when treated with over-the-counter laxatives. Caregivers should be advised not to administer over-the-counter laxatives to infants without physician supervision.

Human resources for health: overcoming the crisis.

In this analysis of the global workforce, the Joint Learning Initiative-a consortium of more than 100 health leaders-proposes that mobilisation and strengthening of human resources for health, neglected yet critical, is central to combating health crises in some of the world's poorest countries and for building sustainable health systems in all countries. Nearly all countries are challenged by worker shortage, skill mix imbalance, maldistribution, negative work environment, and weak knowledge base. Especially in the poorest countries, the workforce is under assault by HIV/AIDS, out-migration, and inadequate investment. Effective country strategies should be backed by international reinforcement. Ultimately, the crisis in human resources is a shared problem requiring shared responsibility for cooperative action. Alliances for action are recommended to strengthen the performance of all existing actors while expanding space and energy for fresh actors.

Human resources and health outcomes: cross-country econometric study.

BACKGROUND: Only a few studies have investigated the link between human resources for health and health outcomes, and they arrive at different conclusions. We tested the strength and significance of density of human resources for health with improved methods and a new WHO dataset. METHODS: We did cross-country multiple regression analyses with maternal mortality rate, infant mortality rate, and under-five mortality rate as dependent variables. Aggregate density of human resources for health was an independent variable in one set of regressions; doctor and nurse densities separately were used in another set. We controlled for the effects of income, female adult literacy, and absolute income poverty. FINDINGS: Density of human resources for health is significant in accounting for maternal mortality rate, infant mortality rate, and under-five mortality rate (with elasticities ranging from -0.474 to -0.212, all p values < or = 0.0036). The elasticities of the three mortality rates with respect to doctor density ranged from -0.386 to -0.174 (all p values < or = 0.0029). Nurse density was not associated except in the maternal mortality rate regression without income poverty (p=0.0443). INTERPRETATION: In addition to other determinants, the density of human resources for health is important in accounting for the variation in rates of maternal mortality, infant mortality, and under-five mortality across countries. The effect of this density in reducing maternal mortality is greater than in reducing child mortality, possibly because qualified medical personnel can better address the illnesses that put mothers at risk. Investment in human resources for health must be considered as part of a strategy to achieve the Millennium Development Goals of improving maternal health and reducing child mortality.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage and isolated atresia of the aortic arch.

The case of a 14 year old boy with subarachnoid hemorrhage and atresia of the aorta without patent ductus arteriosus or intracardiac shunt is described. This case calls attention to the possibility of aortic obstruction in adolescents or young adults with hypertensive stroke. The clinical symptoms, radiographic findings, and surgical repair of isolated aortic interruption, including atresia, are discussed.