Violence and aggression against educators and school personnel, retention, stress, and training needs: National survey results.

Aggression and violence against educators and school personnel have raised public health concerns that require attention from researchers, policymakers, and training providers in U.S. schools. School aggression and violence have negative effects on school personnel health and retention and on student achievement and development. In partnership with several national organizations, the American Psychological Association (APA) Task Force on Violence Against Educators and School Personnel administered two national, multi-informant, cross-sectional surveys. Time 1 data were collected in 2020-2021 from 14,966 respondents; participants reflected on their experiences of violence and aggression before COVID-19 and during COVID-19 restrictions in this survey. One year later, in 2022, 11,814 respondents completed the Time 2 survey after COVID-19 restrictions ended. Participants included teachers, school psychologists, social workers, counselors, staff members, and administrators from all 50 states and Puerto Rico. Rates of violence and aggression directed against educators by students, parents, colleagues, and administrators were substantial before COVID-19, were lower during COVID-19 restrictions, and returned to prepandemic levels or higher after COVID-19 restrictions. After COVID-19 restrictions, 22%-80% of respondents reported verbal or threatening aggression, and 2%-56% of respondents reported physical violence at least once during the year, varying by stakeholder role and aggressor. Rates of intentions to quit the profession ranged from 21% to 43% during COVID-19 restrictions (2020-2021) and from 23% to 57% after COVID-19 restrictions (2021-2022), varying by stakeholder role. Participants across roles reported substantial rates of anxiety and stress, especially during and after COVID-19 restrictions, and identified specific training needs. Implications for theory, research, training, and policy are presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Technology-enhanced mindfulness-based collaborative social reasoning to improve adolescents' social-emotional competencies.

This study reports the preliminary efficacy of an innovative school-based, technology-enhanced social-emotional learning program called "mindfulness-based collaborative social reasoning" (MBCSR) for middle school students. MBCSR was developed by an interdisciplinary team of educational psychologists, mindfulness researchers, computer scientists, and health experts. We integrated the strengths of contemplative approaches, collaborative small group discussions, learning technology, and multidimensional assessments of students' social-emotional outcomes. Using a quasi-experimental design, the study was implemented in four sixth-grade English language arts classrooms (2 experimental and 2 business-as-usual control; N = 74) in a public middle school in the Midwest of the United States. It was co-implemented by researchers and teachers, with sessions occurring for 45 minutes, once per week, for 8 weeks. The MBCSR group showed greater self-efficacy for using Upa-yoga and mindful breathing to regulate their emotions and behaviors ( η p 2 $$ {\eta}_p^2 $$ = .13), and lower externalizing ( η p 2 $$ {\eta}_p^2 $$ = .07) and bullying behaviors ( η p 2 $$ {\eta}_p^2 $$ = .09) at the posttest compared to the control group, after controlling for baseline differences. Students in the experimental group overall showed positive and relaxed emotional and physiological states during the sessions. There were no significant differences between the two groups in mindfulness, emotional regulation, and social skills. This program sets an example for integrating social-emotional learning and academic learning into students' daily content instruction.

A qualitative examination of weapon violence against teachers: A theoretical framework and analysis.

Weapon violence in schools is a pressing concern with serious consequences. In this study, we propose and evaluate a theoretical framework of school-based weapon violence comprised of contributors, triggers, and motivation leading to weapon behaviors, taking into account weapon type, origin, and availability. This framework provides a foundation to investigate the multifaceted nature of weapon violence in schools. Specifically, we examine the weapon violence experiences of 417 U.S. teachers based on their reports of their most upsetting experiences with violence in their schools from various aggressors (i.e., students, parents, colleagues). Qualitative open-ended survey data were coded in NVivo after achieving strong interrater reliability (Gwet's agreement coefficient with first-order chance correction, AC1 = .97; κ = .80), and analyses were guided by the proposed theoretical framework. Results indicated that individual, school, peer, family, and community conditions contributed to situational triggers (teacher or other school-stakeholder actions), and aggressor motivation was typically instrumental or expressive. The type and origin of weapons also played a role in weapon behaviors of carrying, threats, and usage. Aggressors often used readily available objects (e.g., chair, pencil) as weapons against teachers in addition to traditional weapons (e.g., knives, guns). Findings suggest that weapon violence in schools requires a broader conceptualization beyond traditional weapons and violence between students. This study advances our understanding of pathways to weapon behaviors for prevention and intervention. Implications of findings for school-stakeholder training and policies are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

How school policies, strategies, and relational factors contribute to teacher victimization and school safety.

In this study, we examined how school policies and strategies (i.e., positive discipline, hardening strategies, and positive behavioral strategies) affect teacher relational factors and teacher reports of victimization and safety. Specifically, we examined the mediational roles of teacher support of student learning, maltreatment of students by teachers, and teachers' differential treatment of students in schools. Using a sample of 6643 pre-K-12th-grade teachers, path analysis results revealed that positive behavior strategies, hardening strategies, and positive discipline were indirectly associated with teacher victimization and sense of safety. Additionally, teachers' perceptions of other teachers maltreating students had the greatest contributions to their sense of safety and victimization by students. Positive discipline was directly and indirectly associated with teacher victimization and safety. Implications and directions for future studies are discussed.

Teacher-directed violence and anxiety and stress: Predicting intentions to transfer and quit.

Teacher well-being and experiences of violence have become issues of national concern, and teacher shortages have increased since the onset of COVID-19. In this national study, we examined verbal and physical violence against teachers from multiple aggressors and the role of anxiety and stress in predicting intentions to transfer positions or quit the profession. The majority of the sample of 9,370 pre-Kindergarten-12th grade teachers was White (79%) and female (79%). Descriptive analyses revealed that 25% of teachers reported intentions to transfer schools and 43% of teachers reported intentions to quit teaching. Structural equation model results indicated pre-COVID-19 verbal and threatening violence from students, parents, colleagues, and administrators predicted teacher anxiety and stress and intentions to transfer schools (R² ranged from .18 to .23) and quit the profession during COVID-19 (R² ranged from .34 to .36). Anxiety and stress significantly mediated the relation between verbal and threatening violence across all aggressors and teacher intentions to transfer schools and quit the profession. Physical violence from certain aggressors predicted anxiety and stress and intention to transfer schools (R² ranged from .15 to .18) and quit the profession (R² ranged from .32 to .34). Further, teacher and school characteristics, such as identifying as a person of color and teaching at the middle and high school levels, were associated with greater intentions to transfer schools and quit the profession. Implications for school-based research, practice, and policy are discussed to address violence and promote positive work and learning environments for all school stakeholders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Addressing violence against educators: What do teachers say works?

School personnel safety and well-being have received increased attention via national outlets; however, research is limited. The current investigation is the first to examine the reported use and perceived effectiveness of commonly used school-based intervention approaches for addressing school violence, specifically violence against teachers in U.S. schools. A sample of 4,471 prekindergarten-12th grade teachers was asked to rate the use and perceived effectiveness of common school-based approaches, namely exclusionary discipline (e.g., suspensions), school hardening (e.g., metal detectors, school police), prevention (e.g., school climate improvement, social-emotional learning, classroom management), and crisis intervention practices (e.g., de-escalation, physical restraint) to address verbal/threatening, physical, and property violence against teachers. Findings revealed that teachers rated prevention practices as most effective in reducing violence against teachers. The use of exclusionary discipline and crisis intervention practices at school was positively associated with all three forms of violence. Ratings of the effectiveness of specific practices were associated with lower likelihoods of verbal/threatening (i.e., hardening, prevention), physical (i.e., exclusionary discipline, hardening, prevention), and property (i.e., hardening) violence. Implications for school practice, research, and policy are presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Violence directed against teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A social-ecological analysis of safety and well-being.

Violence against teachers is a public health crisis that has devastating effects on school personnel well-being, health, and retention, as well as students' educational outcomes. In collaboration with national organizations, the American Psychological Association Task Force on Violence against Educators conducted the first national survey on educator victimization that included 4,136 pre-K through 12th-grade teachers from all 50 U.S. states and Puerto Rico during the pandemic. In the current study, 43.7% of teachers reported experiencing at least one verbal threat, physical assault, and/or property damage, with verbal threats being the most prevalent form of victimization during the pandemic. Using a social-ecological framework and logistic regression analyses, characteristics of teachers, school climate, and school organizational and community factors were examined as predictors of teacher victimization (i.e., verbal threats, physical, property violence) during the pandemic. Findings revealed that teacher role (i.e., special educators), negative and positive dimensions of school climate, as well as school organizational and community factors (i.e., percent of students receiving free and reduced lunch, instructional modality, school level, and urbanicity) significantly predicted greater teacher victimization. While findings revealed that in-person instruction significantly predicted teacher violence across aggressors, teacher victimization was reported across instructional modality (in-person, hybrid, remote). Results offer insights into possible contextual antecedents to teacher victimization, sense of safety, and well-being in schools. Implications for research and school practice are presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Developing Sexual Self-Efficacy Beliefs During Adolescence: Do Health Teachers Really Matter?

Teacher attitudes and instructional strategies impact success of human sexuality programs. Limited prior research has examined the relations of teachers' attitudes and instruction to the development of adolescents' sexual self-efficacy beliefs. This study examined how adolescents' perceptions of their health teachers (i.e., teacher value of content, teacher affinity, teacher caring for students) predict changes in efficacy beliefs related to HIV/STD and pregnancy prevention, and if perceptions of mastery goal structure predicted adaptive efficacy beliefs. Data were collected in 4 Midwestern/Appalachian high schools in health class where the delivery of a 14-lesson sexual health curriculum occurred. Participants included 561 students (50.4% 9th graders, 43.5% female, 56.3% White, 53.7% did not have a current romantic partner, and 59.7% had previously not engaged in sexual activity). The findings indicate students' perceptions of teachers valuing the content predicted perceptions of mastery goal structure for all sexual self-efficacy beliefs: learning efficacy, condom negotiation efficacy, refusal self-efficacy, and situational self-efficacy. Students who perceive a mastery goal structure in health class, and who feel their teachers value learning about HIV/STD and pregnancy prevention, are likely to experience positive adaptive self-efficacy beliefs related to sexual health, ultimately leading to behaviors indicative of decreased STDs among teenagers and safe sexual practices, such as abstinence, the use of a condom, and saying "no" to having sex.

Social network analysis and its applications to school psychology: A tutorial.

Social network analysis (SNA) consists of a broad set of frameworks and methods to assess how direct and indirect relationships influence individual functioning. Although interest in SNA has steadily increased in the psychological sciences, school psychology has not kept pace. This article provides a general overview of core SNA concepts, including how network data is typically collected in schools. Following this overview, we provide some caveats to considerations for school psychology researchers interested in collecting network data. Finally, we highlight the potential value of SNA to school psychologists by describing the networks of older adolescents as it pertains to aggression and the bystander effect. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Physical aggression toward teachers: Antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.

School violence is a significant public health concern that occurs in many forms. Physical aggression can cause serious bodily injury and long-term negative effects, and both teachers and students experience significant rates of physical aggression. There are few studies examining teachers' experiences of physical aggression. Studies that go beyond prevalence are limited, and we know little about the triggers and consequences that surround these incidents. This qualitative investigation used an antecedent-behavior-consequence (A-B-C) framework to understand how incidents of physical aggression directed toward teachers unfold. The sample included 193 elementary and secondary teachers who completed an anonymous, online survey and described events leading up to and following their experiences with physical aggression. Using conventional content analysis, we identified common antecedents, such as breaking up fights, discipline, and directives, and common consequences, such as student removal, school staff involvement, positive outcomes, and inaction. Further analyses revealed seven common A-B-C patterns among physical aggression incidents that are highlighted and discussed. Utility of the A-B-C framework for teacher-directed violence is described, along with implications for research, practice, and policy. Exploring the context surrounding incidents of physical aggression directed against teachers provides useful information for violence prevention and interventions.

Math and science motivation in internationally adopted adolescents.

Despite prior studies documenting learning difficulties among internationally adopted youth (IAY), none has explored academic motivation within this population. The current study addressed this gap by examining expectancies for success and task values in math and science among internationally adopted, domestically adopted, and nonadopted high-school students. Differences in students' math achievement and parents' beliefs about their ability were also explored. A subsample of 7,420 11th-grade students was selected from the High School Longitudinal Study data set (Ingels et al., 2011). After controlling for prior motivation, achievement, demographics, and clustering, analyses revealed that IAY held less adaptive motivational beliefs in math. Compared with their nonadopted peers, internationally adopted students reported lower expectancies for success, attainment value, and intrinsic value in math. Few differences in science motivation emerged, and no differences in math achievement were observed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Approaches to academic growth assessment.

BACKGROUND: There is much interest in assessing growth in student learning. Assessments of growth have important implications and affect many policy decisions at many levels. AIMS: In the present article, we review some of the different approaches to measuring growth and examine the implications of their usage. SAMPLE: Samples used in research on growth models typically include students enrolled in public schools that primarily serve kindergarten through the 12th grade. METHOD: Definitions of growth and gain are reviewed, and five types of growth models are examined: (1) Student Gain Score Model, (2) The Covariate Adjustment Model, (3) The Student Percentile Gain Model - referred to as single-wave value-added models, (4) Univariate Value-Added Response Models, and (5) Multivariate Value-Added Response Models. RESULTS: Modelling approaches are vastly different, whereas Student Gain Models are mathematically and conceptually simple, Multivariate Models are highly complex. CONCLUSION: Educators assessing growth must make critical decisions about measurement. The type of instrument that is selected and the type of analytic techniques selected are of great importance. Growth must be considered from technical, pedagogical, and policy perspectives.

Understanding and preventing violence directed against teachers: recommendations for a national research, practice, and policy agenda.

Violence directed against K-12 teachers is a serious problem that demands the immediate attention of researchers, providers of teacher pre-service and in-service training, school administrators, community leaders, and policymakers. Surprisingly, little research has been conducted on this growing problem despite the broad impact teacher victimization can have on schooling, recruitment, and retention of highly effective teachers and on student academic and behavioral outcomes. Psychologists should play a leadership role in mitigating school violence, including violence directed toward teachers. There is a need for psychologists to conduct research accurately assessing the types and scope of violence that teachers experience; to comprehensively evaluate the individual, classroom, school, community, institutional, and cultural contextual factors that might predict and/or explain types of teacher violence; and to examine the effectiveness and sustainability of classroom, school, and district-wide prevention and intervention strategies that target teacher violence in school systems. Collectively, the work of psychologists in this area could have a substantial impact on schooling, teacher experience and retention, and overall student performance.

Classroom Goal Structures and HIV/Pregnancy Prevention Education in Rural High School Health Classrooms.

Over 5,000 adolescents enrolled in required rural high school health courses reported their perceptions of mastery and extrinsic goal structures in their health classrooms. Data were collected from all students at three time points (prior to HIV/pregnancy instruction, three months after instruction, and one year after instruction). Results indicated that classroom goal structures were related to both proximal and distal knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and efficacy beliefs. Results in particular indicate that the perception of a mastery goal structure in health education classrooms fosters knowledge, improved attitudes, enhanced efficacy beliefs, and lower intentions to have sexual intercourse.

Associations of teacher credibility and teacher affinity with learning outcomes in health classrooms.

In the present study (N = 633), we examine the role of teacher credibility and teacher affinity in classrooms. We explore the relations among these two characteristics and student gains in knowledge and valuing of learning about HIV and pregnancy prevention across high school classrooms. Results marshaled support for the notion that teacher characteristics are associated with classroom-level gains in learning outcomes. Above and beyond student-level predictors, teacher credibility (aggregated to the classroom level) was positively related to increases in knowledge across classrooms, whereas aggregated teacher affinity was positively related to an increased valuing of learning about HIV and pregnancy prevention across classrooms. Future directions and implications for practice are discussed.

Comparing the efficacy of permanent classroom teachers to temporary health educators for pregnancy and HIV prevention instruction.

Ninth grade health education classrooms were randomly assigned to conditions in which a 14-lesson unit on HIV and pregnancy prevention was provided either by the permanent classroom teacher or by a temporary health educator. Student data were collected prior to the lessons and approximately 3 weeks after the completion of the unit. Results indicate that students who learned the unit from the classroom teacher reported that that the instructor was more likeable and credible and that the classrooms were more motivational. Sexually active adolescents with regular classroom teachers reported greater increases in frequency of class discussion.

Sexual self-concept and sexual self-efficacy in adolescents: a possible clue to promoting sexual health?

This study examined the associations between sexual self-concept (sexual esteem and sexual anxiety) and sexual self-efficacy (situational and resistive) in a sample of 388 high school students (59% Caucasian, 28% African American). Males reported lower sexual esteem and lower sexual self-efficacy than females. Males and African Americans reported higher levels of sexual anxiety and lower levels of resistive self-efficacy than females and Caucasians. In regression models, higher sexual self-esteem uniquely predicted higher sexual self-efficacy scores, even after controlling for demographic variables, knowledge of sexual risk, and previous coital experience. In post hoc analyses, sexual self-esteem mediated the relation between knowledge of sexual risk and both types of sexual self-efficacy. Results suggest the need for interventions to promote male sexual self-efficacy and sexual esteem and the need for longitudinal research that explicates models of sexual health in adolescence.

Longitudinal test of a multiple domain model of adolescent condom use.

A comprehensive multiple domain model (MDM) to understand condom use in adolescents was proposed and tested using structural equation modeling of data at three time points. The proposed model integrates social psychological theory, demographic and personality factors, social environment, and situational/contextual variables. Adolescents who were sexually active at time 2 (6 months after baseline) and time 3 (1 year after time 2) and completed surveys at all three time points were included in the analyses (N = 511). An iterative process of model testing resulted in a structural equation model that provided a good fit to the data (CFI = .92, RMSEA = .04). Models comparing gender and race as moderators also were calculated and supported the generalizability of the model. Results provide support for an MDM that goes beyond traditional social psychological models for a broader understanding of condom use in adolescents. Implications for further theory testing and safer sexual interventions are discussed.

Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and academic achievement.

Over the past 25 years, achievement goal theory has emerged as one of the most prominent theories of achievement motivation. This chapter uses an achievement goal framework to examine the influence of classroom and school environments on students' academic motivation and achievement. Considerable evidence suggests that elementary and secondary students show the most positive motivation and learning patterns when their school settings emphasize mastery, understanding, and improving skills and knowledge. Whereas school environments that are focused on demonstrating high ability and competing for grades can increase the academic performance of some students, research suggests that many young people experience diminished motivation under these conditions. The implications of achievement goal theory for examining the impact of school reform are discussed.

Learning to Value Mathematics and Reading: Relations to Mastery and Performance-Oriented Instructional Practices.

Changes in students' achievement values in mathematics and reading were examined in a sample of children and early adolescents. Hierarchical linear modeling techniques were used to account for both classroom- and student-level effects. At the student level, positive changes in students' achievement values were associated positively with self-concept of ability and the previous year's achievement values in both reading and math. Measures of teachers' mastery- and performance-oriented instructional practices were included in the full HLM model. Students experienced decrements in achievement values, after controlling for other student and classroom-level variables, in classrooms where performance-oriented instructional practices were used. In the full model, self-concept of ability was related positively to increases in achievement values, whereas gender was unrelated to changes in achievement values. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.