Predictors of Making a Referral to Child Protective Services Prior to Expert Consultation.

OBJECTIVE: Suspicion for child abuse is influenced by implicit biases. Evaluation by a Child Abuse Pediatrician (CAP) may reduce avoidable child protective services (CPS) referrals. Our objective was to investigate the association of patient demographic, social and clinical characteristics with CPS referral before consultation by a CAP (preconsultation referral). METHODS: Children<5years-old undergoing in-person CAP consultation for suspected physical abuse from February 2021 through April 2022 were identified in CAPNET, a multicenter child abuse research network. Marginal standardization implemented with logistic regression analysis examined hospital-level variation and identified demographic, social, and clinical factors associated with preconsultation referral adjusting for CAP's final assessment of abuse likelihood. RESULTS: Among the 61% (1005/1657) of cases with preconsultation referral, the CAP consultant had low concern for abuse in 38% (384/1005). Preconsultation referrals ranged from 25% to 78% of cases across 10 hospitals (P < .001). In multivariable analyses, preconsultation referral was associated with public insurance, caregiver history of CPS involvement, history of intimate partner violence, higher CAP level of concern for abuse, hospital transfer, and near-fatality (all P < .05). The difference in preconsultation referral prevalence for children with public versus private insurance was significant for children with low CAP concern for abuse (52% vs 38%) but not those with higher concern for abuse (73% vs 73%), (P = .023 for interaction of insurance and abuse likelihood category). There were no differences in preconsultation referral based on race or ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS: Biases based on socioeconomic status and social factors may impact decisions to refer to CPS before CAP consultation.

Child Abuse Pediatrics Research Network: The CAPNET Core Data Project.

OBJECTIVE: Examine the epidemiology of subspecialty physical abuse evaluations within CAPNET, a multicenter child abuse pediatrics research network. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of children <10 years old who underwent an evaluation (in-person or remote) by a child abuse pediatrician (CAP) due to concerns for physical abuse at ten CAPNET hospital systems from February 2021 through December 2021. RESULTS: Among 3667 patients with 3721 encounters, 69.4% were <3 years old; 44.3% <1 year old, 59.1% male; 27.1% Black; 57.8% White, 17.0% Hispanic; and 71.0 % had public insurance. The highest level of care was outpatient/emergency department in 60.7%, inpatient unit in 28.0% and intensive care in 11.4%. CAPs performed 79.1% in-person consultations and 20.9% remote consultations. Overall, the most frequent injuries were bruises (35.2%), fractures (29.0%), and traumatic brain injuries (TBI) (16.2%). Abdominal (1.2%) and spine injuries (1.6%) were uncommon. TBI was diagnosed in 30.6% of infants but only 8.4% of 1-year old children. In 68.2% of cases a report to child protective services (CPS) was made prior to CAP consultation; in 12.4% a report was made after CAP consultation. CAPs reported no concern for abuse in 43.0% of cases and mild/intermediate concern in 22.3%. Only 14.2% were categorized as definite abuse. CONCLUSION: Most children in CAPNET were <3 years old with bruises, fractures, or intracranial injuries. CPS reports were frequently made prior to CAP consultation. CAPs had a low level of concern for abuse in majority of cases.

Evaluating for Suspected Child Abuse: Conditions That Predispose to Bleeding.

Child abuse might be suspected when children present with cutaneous bruising, intracranial hemorrhage, or other manifestations of bleeding. In these cases, it is necessary to consider medical conditions that predispose to easy bleeding or bruising. When evaluating for the possibility of bleeding disorders and other conditions that predispose to hemorrhage, it is important for pediatricians to consider the child's presenting history, medical history, and physical examination findings before initiating a laboratory investigation. Many medical conditions can predispose to easy bleeding. Before ordering laboratory tests for a disease, it is useful to understand the biochemical basis and clinical presentation of the disorder, condition prevalence, and test characteristics. This technical report reviews the major medical conditions that predispose to bruising or bleeding and should be considered when evaluating for abusive injury.

The CAPNET multi-center data set for child physical abuse: Rationale, methods and scope.

BACKGROUND: The pediatric subspecialty of Child Abuse Pediatrics (CAP) was certified by the American Board of Medical Subspecialties in 2006. Relative to its impact on pediatric health, CAP-focused research has been relatively under-funded. Multi-center networks related to CAP-focused research have made important advances, but have been limited in scope and duration. CAPNET is multi-center network whose mission is to support CAP-focused research. OBJECTIVE: To describe the rationale, development, and scope of the CAPNET research network infrastructure, the CAPNET data registry and associated data resources. METHODS: Based on existing priorities for CAP-focused research, we used consensus building and iterative testing to establish inclusion criteria, common data elements, data quality assurance, and data sharing processes for children with concerns of physical abuse. RESULTS: We describe the rationale, methods and intended scope for the development of the CAPNET research network and data registry. CAPNET is currently abstracting data for children <10 years (120 months) old who undergo sub-specialty evaluation for physical abuse at 10 US pediatric centers (approximately 4000 evaluations/year total) using an online data capture form. Data domains include: demographics; visit timing and providers, medical/social history, presentation, examination findings, laboratory and radiographic testing, diagnoses, outcomes, and data for contact children. We describe the methods and criteria for collecting and validating data which are broadly available to CAP investigators. CONCLUSIONS: CAPNET represents a new data resource for the CAP research community and will increase the quantity and quality of CAP-focused research.

Differences Between Viral Meningitis and Abusive Head Trauma.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the hypothesis that viral meningitis may mimic abusive head trauma (AHT) by comparing the history of present illness (HPI) and clinical presentation of young children with proven viral meningitis to those with AHT and those with subdural hemorrhage (SDH) only. We hypothesized that significant differences would exist between viral meningitis and the comparison groups. METHODS: We performed a 5-year retrospective case-control study of subjects aged <2 years, comparing those with confirmed viral meningitis (controls) to those with SDH evaluated by the hospital child abuse pediatrics team (cases). Cases were classified as SDH with concomitant suspicious injuries (AHT) and without concomitant suspicious injuries (SDH-only). Groups were compared across demographic (5 measures), HPI (11 measures), and clinical (9 measures) domains. Odds ratios were calculated for measures within each domain. RESULTS: Of 550 subjects, there were 397 viral meningitis, 118 AHT, and 35 SDH-only subjects. Viral meningitis differed significantly from AHT subjects on all demographic measures, and from SDH-only subjects on age. Viral meningitis differed significantly from AHT subjects in all HPI measures with odds ratios ranging from 2.7 to 322.5, and from SDH-only subjects in 9 HPI measures with odds ratios ranging from 4.6 to 485.2. In the clinical domain, viral meningitis differed significantly from AHT subjects in all measures, with odds ratios ranging from 2.5 to 74.0, and from SDH-only subjects in 5 measures with odds ratios ranging from 2.9 to 16.8. CONCLUSIONS: Viral meningitis is not supported as a mimic of AHT.

State Spending on Public Benefit Programs and Child Maltreatment.

BACKGROUND: To determine the association between states' total spending on benefit programs and child maltreatment outcomes. METHODS: This was an ecological study of all US states during federal fiscal years 2010-2017. The primary predictor was states' total annual spending on local, state, and federal benefit programs per person living ≤100% federal poverty limit, which was the sum of (1) cash, housing, and in-kind assistance, (2) housing infrastructure, (3) child care assistance, (4) refundable Earned Income Tax Credit, and (5) Medical Assistance Programs. The main outcomes were rates of maltreatment reporting, substantiations, foster care placements, and fatalities after adjustment for relevant confounders. Generalized estimating equations adjusted for federal spending and estimated adjusted incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: States' total spending was inversely associated with all maltreatment outcomes. For each additional $1000 states spent on benefit programs per person living in poverty, there was an associated -4.3% (adjusted IRR: 0.9573 [95% CI: 0.9486 to 0.9661]) difference in reporting, -4.0% (adjusted IRR: 0.903 [95% CI: 0.9534 to 0.9672]) difference in substantiations, -2.1% (adjusted IRR: 0.9795 [95% CI: 0.9759 to 0.9832]) difference in foster care placements, and -7.7% (adjusted IRR: 0.9229 [95% CI: 0.9128 to 0.9330]) difference in fatalities. In 2017, extrapolating $1000 of additional spending for each person living in poverty ($46.5 billion nationally, or 13.3% increase) might have resulted in 181 850 fewer reports, 28 575 fewer substantiations, 4168 fewer foster care placements, and 130 fewer fatalities. CONCLUSIONS: State spending on benefit programs was associated with reductions in child maltreatment, which might offset some benefit program costs.

Association of routine school closures with child maltreatment reporting and substantiation in the United States; 2010-2017.

BACKGROUND: There exists a presumption that school closures lead to a diminished capacity to detect child maltreatment, but empiric evidence is lacking. OBJECTIVE: To determine if child maltreatment reporting and substantiation differ between periods when schools are routinely closed compared to in session. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Child maltreatment reporting and substantiation among all U.S. States and the District of Columbia from January 1, 2010 through December 31, 2017. METHODS: Two-week intervals during periods of routine school closure (early January, June through mid-August, late November, and late December) were compared to all other 2-week intervals. Negative binomial generalized estimating equations compared rates of reporting and substantiation, resulting in incidence rate ratios (IRR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Compared to when school was in session, reporting was 16.0% (IRR 0.84 [95% CI: 0.83, 0.85]) lower during school closures and substantiations were 12.3% (IRR 0.88 [95% CI: 0.86, 0.89]) lower. The largest reductions in reporting were observed among education personnel (-42.1%; IRR 0.58 [95% CI: 0.54, 0.62]), children aged 5-17 years (-18.6%; IRR 0.81 [95% CI: 0.80, 0.83), and for physical abuse (-19.6%; IRR 0.80 [95% CI: 0.79, 0.82]). Reductions during closure periods were not matched by increases during two-week intervals immediately following closure periods. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the detection of child maltreatment may be diminished during periods of routine school closure. Findings may inform prevention planning and risk-benefit analyses for future school closures. Further study should disentangle the issue of decreased detection versus decreased prevalence of maltreatment during school closures.

A review on clotting disorders and retinal hemorrhages: Can they mimic abuse?

BACKGROUND: The characteristic findings of abusive head trauma (AHT) include retinal hemorrhages (RH). RH have many etiologies in childhood, which should be considered in the differential diagnosis of possible child abuse. The relationship between RH and thrombophilia in children is not well established. OBJECTIVE: In this literature review, we sought to assess whether retinal findings in pediatric patients with thrombophilia could mimic those of AHT. METHODS: A literature search was performed to identify all cases of thrombophilia in children less than 18 years old with ocular manifestations. Disorders of thrombophilia including protein C and S deficiency, factor V Leiden (FVL), prothrombin variant, MTHFR mutation, hyperhomocysteinemia, elevated factor VIII, and elevated lipoprotein (a) were considered. All cases of pediatric thrombophilia with retinal examination or intraocular bleeding were included. If provided, descriptions of the RH were reviewed. RESULTS: Our initial search yielded 514 results. Forty-three articles met our inclusion criteria. We identified 3 children with RH within the AHT usual age range (<5 years old), ages 5 weeks and 7 weeks old, in the setting of thrombophilia. One child had ocular findings that could potentially mimic abuse. No other indicators of abuse were present in this case. CONCLUSIONS: Based on previous reports, thrombophilia alone has not been shown to clearly mimic abusive head trauma. In reported cases of thrombophilia with RH, the clinical picture and ophthalmic findings are usually distinct from abuse.

Retinal hemorrhage and bleeding disorders in children: A review.

BACKGROUND: Retinal hemorrhages (RH) are a common manifestation of abusive head trauma (AHT) resulting from acceleration-deceleration injury with or without blunt impact. Evaluation of a child with RH requires careful consideration of these differential diagnoses. The extent to which coagulopathy alone can cause RH would be useful to understand as coagulopathy may accompany AHT. OBJECTIVE: In this systematic review, we sought to identify whether coagulopathies have been reported with RH similar to those of AHT. METHODS: We performed a literature search for ocular manifestations of bleeding disorders in children less than 18 years old. We included clotting factor deficiencies, vitamin K deficiency, platelet function abnormalities, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and trauma induced coagulopathy (TIC). We included only pediatric reports of intraocular bleeding or documented eye examinations that indicated no hemorrhages. We then re-examined cases for ocular and systemic findings that could potentially mimic abuse. RESULTS: Our initial search yielded 816 results. Sixty-one articles met our inclusion criteria. Of these, there were 32 children within the AHT age range (less than 5 years old) who had RH and concomitant coagulopathy. Only 5 cases might potentially be confused for abuse. Of these, no classic characteristics of RH from abuse such as retinoschisis or retinal folds were found. Systemic features were inconsistent with AHT. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of coagulopathy alone does not rule out the possibility that the child has been abused. Coagulopathy alone has not been reported as an etiology of RH that are consistent with AHT, especially when other findings are present.

Cervical Spine Imaging and Injuries in Young Children With Non-Motor Vehicle Crash-Associated Traumatic Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate cervical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) practices and cervical spine injuries among young children with non-motor vehicle crash (MVC)-associated traumatic brain injury (TBI). METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of a stratified, systematic random sample of 328 children younger than 2 years with non-MVC-associated TBI at 4 urban children's hospitals from 2008 to 2012. We defined TBI etiology as accidental, indeterminate, or abuse. We reported the proportion, by etiology, who underwent cervical MRI or CT, and had cervical abnormalities identified. RESULTS: Of children with non-MVC-associated TBI, 39.4% had abusive head trauma (AHT), 52.2% had accidental TBI, and in 8.4% the etiology was indeterminate. Advanced cervical imaging (CT and/or MRI) was obtained in 19.1% of all children with TBI, with 9.3% undergoing MRI and 11.7% undergoing CT. Cervical MRI or CT was performed in 30.9% of children with AHT, in 11.7% of accidental TBI, and in 10.7% of indeterminate-cause TBI. Among children imaged by MRI or CT, abnormal cervical findings were found in 22.1%, including 31.3% of children with AHT, 7.1% of children with accidental TBI, and 0% of children with indeterminate-cause TBI. Children with more severe head injuries who underwent cervical imaging were more likely to have cervical injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Abusive head trauma victims appear to be at increased risk of cervical injuries. Prospective studies are needed to define the risk of cervical injury in children with TBI concerning for AHT and to inform development of imaging guidelines.

Occult head injuries in infants evaluated for physical abuse.

BACKGROUND: Abusive head injuries in infants may be occult but clinically or forensically important. Data conflict regarding yield of neuroimaging in detecting occult head injuries in infants evaluated for physical abuse, with prior studies identifying yields of 4.3-37.3 %. OBJECTIVES: (1) To quantify yield of computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging in identification of occult head injuries in infants with concerns for physical abuse and (2) to evaluate risk factors for occult head injuries. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: We conducted a retrospective, stratified, random systematic sample of 529 infants <12 months evaluated for physical abuse at 4 urban children's hospitals in the United States from 2008-2012. Infants with signs or symptoms suggesting head injury or skull fracture on plain radiography (N = 359), and infants without neuroimaging (N = 1) were excluded. METHODS: Sampling weights were applied to calculate proportions of infants with occult head injuries. We evaluated for associations between hypothesized risk factors (age <6 months, rib or extremity fracture, facial bruising) and occult head injury using chi-square tests. RESULTS: Of 169 neurologically normal infants evaluated for abuse, occult head injury was identified in 6.5 % (95 % CI: 2.6, 15.8). Infants <6 months were at higher risk (9.7 %; 95 % CI: 3.6, 23.3) than infants 6-12 months (1.0 %; 95 % CI: 1.3, 20.2). Rib fracture, extremity fracture and facial bruising were not associated with occult head injury. CONCLUSIONS: Occult head injuries were less frequent than previously reported in some studies, but were identified in 1 in 10 infants <6 months. Clinicians should have a low threshold to obtain neuroimaging in young infants with concern for abuse.

Intrauterine Substance Exposure and the Risk for Subsequent Physical Abuse Hospitalizations.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the relative risk for a physical abuse hospitalization among substance exposed infants (SEI) with and without neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). METHODS: We created a nationally representative US birth cohort using the 2013 and 2014 Nationwide Readmissions Databases. International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes were used to identify newborns, predictor variables, and subsequent hospitalizations for physical abuse within 6 months of discharge from newborns' birth hospitalization. Predictor variables included newborn demographics, prematurity or low birth weight, and intrauterine substance exposure: non-SEI, SEI without NAS, and SEI with NAS. Multiple logistic regression calculated adjusted relative risks and 95% confidence intervals. A subanalysis of newborns with narcotic exposure was performed. RESULTS: There were 3,740,582 newborns in the cohort; of which 13,024 (0.4%) were SEI without NAS and 20,196 (0.5%) SEI with NAS. Overall, 1247 (0.03%) newborns were subsequently hospitalized for physical abuse within 6 months. Compared to non-SEI, SEI with NAS (adjusted relative risks: 3.84 [95% confidence intervals: 2.79-5.28]) were at increased risk for having a subsequent hospitalization for physical abuse, but SEI without NAS were not. A similar pattern was observed among narcotic-exposed infants; infants with NAS due to narcotics were at increased risk, but narcotic-exposed infants without NAS were not. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that newborns diagnosed with NAS are at increased risk of physical abuse during early infancy, above that of substance-exposed infants without NAS. These results should improve the identification of higher-risk infants who may benefit from more rigorous safety planning and follow-up care.

Insurance Coverage for Children Impacts Reporting of Child Maltreatment by Healthcare Professionals.

OBJECTIVES: Children's insurance coverage, through increased access and use of the healthcare system, may increase the likelihood that healthcare professionals (HCPs) will detect and report child maltreatment. We sought to estimate the association between insurance coverage for children and reporting of child maltreatment by HCPs. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cross-sectional study of US counties from 2008 to 2015 using data from the US Census Bureau's Small Area Health Insurance Estimates, National Center for Health Statistics, and National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. The primary predictor was counties' percent of children insured. We controlled for counties' children living at ≤200% federal poverty level, race/ethnicity demographics, and urban-rural status. The primary outcome was the rate of maltreatment reporting from HCPs. Generalized linear mixed effects models with repeated measures across years tested associations. RESULTS: We included 5517 county-year observations involving 470 876 018 child-years. Counties' percent of children insured ranged from 74.6% to 99.2% with a median of 93.7% (IQR, 91.0-95.4). For every 1 percentage point increase in counties' percent of children insured, there was an associated 2% increase in child maltreatment reporting by HCPs (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.02-1.03). If counties' percentage of insured children had been 1 percentage point greater in 2015, a predicted 5620 (95% CI, 5620-8089) additional reports would have been generated. CONCLUSIONS: Among its other benefits for children's well-being, insurance coverage may also contribute to child protection by increasing the reporting of maltreatment among HCPs.

Newborn Risk Factors for Subsequent Physical Abuse Hospitalizations.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence of risk factors for abuse and newborns' risks for physical abuse hospitalizations during early infancy. METHODS: We created a nationally representative US birth cohort using the 2013 and 2014 Nationwide Readmissions Databases. Newborns were characterized by demographics, prematurity or low birth weight (LBW), intrauterine drug exposure, and medical complexity (including birth defects). Newborns were tracked for 6 months from their birth hospitalization, and subsequent abuse hospitalizations were identified by using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes. We calculated adjusted relative risks (aRRs) with multiple logistic regression, and we used classification and regression trees to identify newborns with the greatest risk for abuse on the basis of combinations of multiple risk factors. RESULTS: There were 3 740 582 newborns in the cohort. Among them, 1247 (0.03%) were subsequently hospitalized for abuse within 6 months. Among infants who were abused, 20.4% were premature or LBW, and 4.1% were drug exposed. Premature or LBW newborns (aRR 2.16 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.87-2.49]) and newborns who were drug exposed (aRR 2.86 [95% CI: 2.15-3.80]) were independently at an increased risk for an abuse hospitalization, but newborns with medical complexity or noncardiac birth defects were not. Publicly insured preterm or LBW newborns from rural counties had the greatest risk for abuse hospitalizations (aRR 9.54 [95% CI: 6.88-13.23]). Publicly insured newborns who were also preterm, LBW, or drug exposed constituted 5.2% of all newborns, yet they constituted 18.5% of all infants who were abused. CONCLUSIONS: Preterm or LBW newborns and newborns who were drug exposed, particularly those with public insurance and residing in rural counties, were at the highest risk for abuse hospitalizations. Effective prevention directed at these highest-risk newborns may prevent a disproportionate amount of abuse.

Use and Utility of Skeletal Surveys to Evaluate for Occult Fractures in Young Injured Children.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the percentage and characteristics of children aged <24 months with non-motor vehicle crash (MVC)-related injuries who undergo a skeletal survey and have occult fractures. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of a stratified, systematic random sample of 1769 children aged<24 months with non-MVC-related bruises, burns, fractures, abdominal injuries, and head injuries at 4 children's hospitals between 2008 and 2012. Sampling weights were assigned to each child to allow for representative hospital-level population estimates. Logistic regression models were used to test for associations between patient characteristics with outcomes of skeletal survey completion and occult fracture identification. RESULTS: Skeletal surveys were performed in 46.3% of children aged 0 to 5 months, in 21.1% of those aged 6 to 11 months, in 8.0% of those aged 12 to 17 months, and in 6.2% of those aged 18 to 24 months. Skeletal surveys were performed most frequently in children with traumatic brain injuries (64.7%) and rib fractures (100%) and least frequently in those with burns (2.1%) and minor head injuries (4.4%). In adjusted analyses, older age, private insurance, and reported history of accidental trauma were associated with decreased skeletal survey use (P ≤ .001 for all). The prevalence of occult fractures on skeletal surveys ranged from 24.6% in children aged 0 to 5months to 3.6% in those aged 18 to 24 months, and varied within age categories based on the presenting injury (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The high rate of occult fractures in infants aged 0 to 5 months underscores the importance of increasing the use of skeletal surveys in this population. Further research is needed to identify the injury characteristics of older infants and toddlers most at risk for occult fractures.

Relevance of Abusive Head Trauma to Intracranial Hemorrhages and Bleeding Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Bleeding disorders and abusive head trauma (AHT) are associated with intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), including subdural hemorrhage (SDH). Because both conditions often present in young children, the need to screen for bleeding disorders would be better informed by data that include trauma history and are specific to young children. The Universal Data Collection database contains information on ICH in subjects with bleeding disorders, including age and trauma history. Study objectives were to (1) characterize the prevalence and calculate the probabilities of any ICH, traumatic ICH, and nontraumatic ICH in children with congenital bleeding disorders; (2) characterize the prevalence of spontaneous SDH on the basis of bleeding disorder; and (3) identify cases of von Willebrand disease (vWD) that mimic AHT. METHODS: We reviewed subjects <4 years of age in the Universal Data Collection database. ICH was categorized on the basis of association with trauma. Prevalence and probability of types of ICH were calculated for each bleeding disorder. RESULTS: Of 3717 subjects, 255 (6.9%) had any ICH and 206 (5.5%) had nontraumatic ICH. The highest prevalence of ICH was in severe hemophilia A (9.1%) and B (10.7%). Of the 1233 subjects <2 years of age in which the specific location of any ICH was known, 13 (1.1%) had spontaneous SDH (12 with severe hemophilia; 1 with type 1 vWD). The findings in the subject with vWD were not congruent with AHT. CONCLUSIONS: In congenital bleeding disorders, nontraumatic ICH occurs most commonly in severe hemophilia. In this study, vWD is not supported as a "mimic" of AHT.

Potential Opportunities for Prevention or Earlier Diagnosis of Child Physical Abuse in the Inpatient Setting.

OBJECTIVES: To compare rates of previous inpatient visits among children hospitalized with child physical abuse (CPA) with controls as well as between individual abuse types. METHODS: In this study, we used the Pediatric Health Information System administrative database of 44 children's hospitals. Children <6 years of age hospitalized with CPA between January 1, 2011, and September 30, 2015, were identified by discharge codes and propensity matched to accidental injury controls. Rates for previous visit types were calculated per 10 000 months of life. χ2 and Poisson regression were used to compare proportions and rates. RESULTS: There were 5425 children hospitalized for CPA. Of abuse and accident cases, 13.1% and 13.2% had a previous inpatient visit, respectively. At previous visits, abused children had higher rates of fractures (rate ratio [RR] = 3.0 times; P = .018), head injuries (RR = 3.5 times; P = .005), symptoms concerning for occult abusive head trauma (AHT) (eg, isolated vomiting, seizures, brief resolved unexplained events) (RR = 1.4 times; P = .054), and perinatal conditions (eg, prematurity) (RR = 1.3 times; P = .014) compared with controls. Head injuries and symptoms concerning for occult AHT also more frequently preceded cases of AHT compared with other types of abuse (both P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Infants hospitalized with perinatal-related conditions, symptoms concerning for occult AHT, and injuries are inpatient populations who may benefit from abuse prevention efforts and/or risk assessments. Head injuries and symptoms concerning for occult AHT (eg, isolated vomiting, seizures, and brief resolved unexplained events) may represent missed opportunities to diagnose AHT in the inpatient setting; however, this requires further study.

Evaluations for abuse in young children with subdural hemorrhages: findings based on symptom severity and benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces.

OBJECTIVE Children who have subdural hematomas (SDHs) with no or minimal neurological symptoms (SDH-mild symptoms) often present a forensic challenge. Nonabusive causes of SDH, including birth-related SDH, benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces (BESS), and other proposed causes have been offered as etiologies. These alternative causes do not provide explanations for concomitant suspicious injuries (CSIs). If SDH with mild symptoms in young children are frequently caused by these alternative causes, children with SDH-mild symptoms should be more likely to have no other CSIs than those who have SDH with severe symptoms (SDH-severe symptoms). Additionally, if SDH with mild symptoms is caused by something other than abuse, the location and distribution of the SDH may be different than an SDH caused by abuse. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of other CSIs in patients who present with SDH-mild symptoms and to compare that prevalence to patients with SDH-severe symptoms. Additionally, this study sought to compare the locations and distributions of SDH between the two groups. Finally, given the data supporting BESS as a potential cause of SDH in young children, the authors sought to evaluate the associations of BESS with SDH-mild symptoms and with other CSIs. METHODS The authors performed a 5-year retrospective case-control study of patients younger than 2 years of age with SDH evaluated by a Child Abuse Pediatrics program. Patients were classified as having SDH-mild symptoms (cases) or SDH-severe symptoms (controls). The two groups were compared for the prevalence of other CSIs. Additionally, the locations and distribution of SDH were compared between the two groups. The presence of BESS was evaluated for associations with symptoms and other CSIs. RESULTS Of 149 patients, 43 presented with SDH-mild symptoms and 106 with SDH-severe symptoms. Patients with SDH-mild symptoms were less likely to have other CSIs (odds ratio [OR] 0.2, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.08-0.5) and less likely to have severe retinal hemorrhages (OR 0.08, 95% CI 0.03-0.3). However, 60.5% of patients with SDH-mild symptoms had other CSIs. There was no difference between the groups regarding the location and distribution of SDH. Of the entire study cohort, 34 (22.8%) had BESS, and BESS was present in 17 (39.5%) of the SDH-mild symptoms group and 17 (16%) of the SDH-severe symptoms group (OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.5-7.6). The presence of BESS was significantly associated with a lower chance of other CSIs (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.05-0.3). However, 17 patients had BESS and other CSIs. Of these 17, 6 had BESS and SDH-mild symptoms. CONCLUSIONS The high occurrence of other CSIs in patients with SDH-mild symptoms and a similar high occurrence in patients with BESS (including those with SDH-mild symptoms) indicate that such children benefit from a full evaluation for abuse.

Evaluation of the Hypothesis That Choking/ALTE May Mimic Abusive Head Trauma.

OBJECTIVE: Apparent life-threatening events (ALTEs), often accompanied by choking, have been hypothesized to cause subdural hemorrhages (SDH), retinal hemorrhages, and brain injury. If the choking/ALTE hypothesis were true, children who present with ALTE and SDH would have fewer extracranial injuries suspicious for abuse than those with SDH and no ALTE. We aimed to compare the prevalence of suspicious extracranial injuries in children who have ALTE-associated SDH to those with non-ALTE SDH. METHODS: We performed a 5-year retrospective case-control study of children <2 years of age with SDH evaluated by the Child Abuse Pediatrics program at a children's hospital. Subjects were classified as ALTE-associated SDH and non-ALTE SDH on the basis of ALTE definitions as proposed by the authors of the choking/ALTE hypothesis. The 2 groups were compared for the prevalence of suspicious extracranial injuries. RESULTS: Of 170 study subjects, 64 had an ALTE-associated SDH and 106 had non-ALTE SDH. ALTE-associated SDH subjects were nearly 5 times more likely to have at least one suspicious extracranial injury (odds ratio [OR] 4.8, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.9-12.1) and were more likely to have individual types of suspicious extracranial injuries, including retinoschisis (OR 4.1, 95% CI 1.6-10.2), high-specificity bruising (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.3-4.9), and internal abdominal injury (3.5, 95% CI 1.2-9.9). Subjects with ALTE-associated SDH were also significantly more likely to die or have persistent neurologic impairment. All 10 subjects with a dysphagic-choking type ALTE had at least 1 suspicious extracranial injury. CONCLUSIONS: ALTEs are not supported as causative mechanisms for findings concerning abusive head trauma.