Apoyo social, soledad, vulnerabilidad y satisfacción con la vida en personas mayores de México / Social Support, Loneliness, Vulnerability and Satisfaction with Life in Elderly People in Mexico / Apoio social, solidão, vulnerabilidade e satisfação com a vida em idosos no México

La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo analizar los efectos directos e indirectos del apoyo social, la soledad y la vulnerabilidad percibida en la satisfacción de vida (sv) de dos grupos de personas mayores en México, uno de 60 a 69 años de edad y el otro de 70 a 99. Se contó con una muestra no probabilística de 4.433 personas mayores, 61.8 % fueron mujeres y 38.2 % hombres. Se utilizaron los siguientes instrumentos: la escala de soledad de la Universidad de California; la escala de Red Social de Lubben (lsns-6) para evaluar el apoyo social percibido; la Escala de Vulnerabilidad Percibida de Myall et al.; la escala de Satisfacción con la Vida de Diener et al., así como un cuestionario sociodemográfico. Los resultados mostraron un buen ajuste de los modelos, en los que se aprecia que para ambos grupos es mayor la varianza explicada de sv al relacionar apoyo social con soledad y vulnerabilidad, que si se mide el efecto directo del apoyo sobre sv. Esta investigación aporta elementos para el desarrollo de programas y políticas públicas que contribuyan al bienestar de personas mayores.

This research analyzed the direct and indirect effects of social support, loneliness and perceived vulnerability on life satisfaction (lf) of two groups of elderly adults in Mexico, one aged 60 to 69 years and the other from 70 to 99. There was a non-probabilistic sample of 4.433 older adults ­61.8 % were women, and 38.2 % were men­. The following instruments were used: the Loneliness Scale of the University of California; the Lubben Social Network scale (lsns-6) to assess perceived social support; the Perceived Vulnerability Scale (pvs) of Myall et al.; the Satisfaction with Life scale of Diener et al., and a sociodemographic questionnaire. The results showed a good fit of the models, which show that the explained variance for both groups of lf is more significant when relating social support with loneliness and vulnerability than if the direct effect of support on lf is measured. This research provides elements for developing programs and public policies that contribute to the wellbeing of the elderly.

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi analisar os efeitos diretos e indiretos do apoio social, solidão e vulnerabilidade percebida na satisfação com a vida (sv) de dois grupos de idosos no México, um grupo entre 60 e 69 anos e outro entre 70 e 99 anos. Contouse com uma amostra não probabilística de 4.433 idosos, sendo 61.8 % mulheres e 38.2 % homens. Foram utilizados os seguintes instrumentos: a escala de solidão da Universidade da Califórnia; a Escala de Rede Social de Lubben (lsns-6) para avaliar o suporte social percebido; a Escala de Vulnerabilidade Percebida (pvs) de Myall et al.; a escala Satisfação com a Vida de Diener et al., bem como um questionário sociodemográfico. Os resultados mostra-ram um bom ajuste dos modelos, onde pode-se observar que para ambos os grupos a variância explicada da své maior quando se relaciona apoio social com solidão e vulnerabilidade do que quando se mede o efeito direto do apoio na sv. Esta pesquisa fornece elementos para o desenvolvimento de programas e políticas públicas que contribuam para o bem-estar dos idosos.

Spanish Adaptation of the Inventory Brief Child Abuse Potential and the Protective Factors Survey.

Child maltreatment is a public health problem with different consequences depending on the form of abuse. Measuring risk and protective factors has been a fertile ground for research, without involving instruments with sufficient evidence of validity. The aim of the study was to gather evidence of validity and reliability of the Inventory Brief Child Abuse Potential (IBCAP) and Protective Factors Survey (PFS) in the Mexican population. The instruments were translated into Spanish. In a non-probabilistic sample of 200 participants, the 7-factor model for the IBCAP [comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.984; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.067] and the 4-factor model for the PFS (CFI = 0.974; RMSEA = 0.061) were confirmed, showing adequate fit indices. Reliability was estimated and evidence of convergent, divergent, and discriminant validity was collected, controlling for effects of social desirability. We also report interpretability statistics of the scores. We achieved solid progress in the development of instrumentation that allows determining the presence or absence of protective and risk factors for child abuse.

Oral health condition and development of frailty over a 12-month period in community-dwelling older adults.

BACKGROUND: To determine the association between oral health condition and development of frailty over a 12-month period in community-dwelling older adults. METHODS: Population-based, case-cohort study derived from the Cohort of Obesity, Sarcopenia, and Frailty of Older Mexican Adults (COSFOMA) study, including data from years 2015 and 2016. Using latent class analysis, we determined the oral health condition of older adults with teeth (t0), i.e., functional teeth, presence of coronal caries, root caries, periodontal disease, dental calculus, dental biofilm, root remains, xerostomia, and need for dental prosthesis. Edentulous was considered as a separate class. Criteria of the Frailty Phenotype (t1) by Fried et al. were used: weight loss, self-report of exhaustion, walking speed, decreased muscle strength, and low physical activity. The presence of three or more criteria indicated a frail condition. The strength of the association (odds ratio, OR) between oral health condition and development of frailty was estimated through bivariate analysis. Multiple logistic regression was used to adjust for the other variables of study: sociodemographic data (sex, age, marital status, level of education, paid work activity, and living alone), comorbidities, cognitive impairment, depressive symptoms, nutritional status, and use of oral health services. RESULTS: 663 non-frail older adults were evaluated, with a mean age of 68.1 years (SD ± 6.1), of whom 55.7% were women. In t0, a three-class model with an acceptable value was obtained (entropy = 0.796). The study participants were classified as: edentulous persons (6.9%); Class 1 = Acceptable oral health (57.9%); Class 2 = Somewhat acceptable oral health (13.9%); and Class 3 = Poor oral health (21.3%). In t1, 18.0% (n = 97) of participants developed frailty. Using Acceptable oral health (Class 1) as a reference, we observed that older adults with edentulism (OR 4.1, OR adjusted 2.3) and Poor oral health (OR 2.4, OR adjusted 2.2) were at an increased risk of developing frailty compared to those with Acceptable oral health. CONCLUSION: Older adults with edentulism and poor oral health had an increased risk of developing frailty over a 12-month period.

Percepción de prácticas parentales y ansiedad en adolescentes mexicanos / Mexican adolescents' perception of parental practices and anxiety

La prevalencia de problemas de ansiedad en adolescentes se ha incrementado en los últimos años en México. Identificar los factores asociados a esta problemática es de gran utilidad para su prevención, detección precoz y tratamiento. El objetivo fue analizar la relación entre la percepción de los adolescentes de las prácticas parentales y la ansiedad Rasgo-Estado. Participaron 809 estudiantes de escuelas públicas de bachillerato en la ciudad de México, de 15 a 20 años, 434 fueron mujeres (56.6%). Todos respondieron la Escala de prácticas parentales (PP) para adolescentes y el Inventario de Ansiedad (A) Rasgo-Estado. Se confirmaron las hipótesis del estudio, la percepción de los adolescentes de las PP positivas de comunicación, control conductual y autonomía se relacionó negativamente con su nivel de A-Rasgo-Estado, y su percepción de las PP negativas de control psicológico e imposición se relacionó positivamente con la A-Rasgo-Estado. Se examinan las implicaciones prácticas de los resultados y se hacen sugerencias para futuras investigaciones

Anxiety disorder prevalence among adolescents has increased in recent years in Mexico. Identifying associated factors to this problem is crucial for prevention, early detection and treatment. The objective was to analyze the relationship between adolescent perception of parental practices and trait-state anxiety. Participants were students attending public high schools in Mexico City (n = 809), between 15 to 20 years old, 434 were women (56.6%). The Adolescent Parental Practice Scale (PP) and The Trait-State Anxiety (A) Inventory were applied. The results confirmed the hypotheses of the study, adolescent perception of positive PP of communication, behavioral control and autonomy was negatively related to their A-Trait-State level, and their perception of negative PP of psychological control and imposition was positively related to A-Trait-State. The practical implications of the results were examined and suggestions for future research were made

Análisis psicométrico de la versión revisada de la escala de fortalezas internas y externas para adolescentes (FIE-AR) / Psychometric analysis of the revised version of the scale of Internal and external assets for adolescents (fie-ar)

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las propiedades psicométricas de la versión revisada de la escala de fortalezas internas y externas para adolescentes (FIE-AR). Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística de 1486 estudiantes de escuelas públicas de Ciudad de México, 47.3% fueron hombres y 52.7% mujeres, con un promedio de edad de 14.6 años (DE=1.7). Se utilizó la segunda versión de la FIE-AR, la cual es una escala que evalúa siete fortalezas externas (supervisión de la madre, apoyo de la madre, apoyo y supervisión del padre, reglas en la casa, amigos sin conductas de riesgo, amigos sanos y no acceso a drogas) y ocho fortalezas internas (responsabilidad, importancia de la salud, evitación de conductas de riesgo, resistencia a la presión de pares, importancia de la religión, toma de decisiones, expresión del enojo y expectativas escolares). Los análisis factoriales confirmatorios identificaron un buen ajuste de los modelos (uno para fortalezas externas y otro para internas).

The objective of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of the revised version of the scale of internal and external assets for adolescents (FIE-AR). A nonprobabilistic sample of 1486 public school students from Mexico City was selected, 47.3% were men and 52.7% were women, with an average age of 14.6 years (SD = 1.7). The second version of the FIE-AR was used, which is a scale that evaluates seven external assets (mother's supervision, support from the mother, father's support and supervision, rules at home, friends without risky behaviors, healthy friends and no access to drugs) and eight internal strengths (responsibility, health's importance, avoidance of risky behaviors, resistance to peer pressure, religion's importance, decision making, anger expression and school expectations). The confirmatory factor analyzes identified a good adjustment of the models (one for external assets and another for internal ones).

Validación de la Escala de Esquemas Maladaptativos Tempranos para Niños / Validation of the Scale of Early Maladaptive Schemes for Children

Resumen Los Esquemas Maladaptativos Tempranos son patrones emocionales y cognitivos que alteran de manera negativa el procesamiento de la información y modifican la percepción de uno mismo y de las relaciones interpersonales (Young et al., 2003). Puesto que el único instrumento en español que evalúa esquemas maladaptativos tempranos en niños cuenta únicamente con análisis exploratorios, los objetivos de este estudio fueron confirmar la estructura de la Escala de Esquemas Maladaptativos Tempranos para niños de 8 a 12 años de edad (Pedroza, 2014) y obtener la validez de criterio y la confiabilidad de la escala. Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística de 421 estudiantes de primarias particulares de la ciudad de Cancún, el 59.9% fueron niñas y el 40.1% niños, con una media de edad (de 9.8 años). Los resultados obtenidos en los análisis factoriales confirmatorios efectuados indicaron que los datos se ajustan al modelo teórico cuando se analizan por separado cada uno de los dominios. En relación a la validez de criterio, los resultados obtenidos mostraron correlaciones significativas de todos los esquemas con los factores de las escalas de depresión y de ansiedad. Los índices de confiabilidad fueron entre α= .73 a α= .87para las dimensiones y de α= 0.94 para la escala total. Se concluye que este instrumento puede ser válido y confiable para la evaluación de Esquemas maladaptativo en niños.

Abstract Early Maladaptive Schemas are emotional and cognitive patterns that alter the negative way of processing information and modify the perception of oneself and interpersonal relationships (Young et al., 2003). Since the only instrument in Spanish that evaluates early maladaptive schemes in children has only exploratory analyzes, the objectives of this study were to confirm the structure of the Early Maladaptive Scheme Scale for children from 8 to 12 years of age (Pedroza, 2014) and obtain the criterion validity and reliability of the scale. A non-probabilistic sample of 421 elementary school students from the city of Cancún were selected, 59.9% were girls and 40.1% boys, with a mean age of 9.8 years. The results obtained in the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that when each of the domains is analyzed separately the data confirm to the theoretical model. In relation to the criterion validity, the results obtained found significant correlations of all the schemas with the factors of the depression and anxiety scales. Reliability indices ranged from α = .73 to α = .87 for the dimensions and α = 0.94 for the full scale. It is concluded that this instrument can be valid and reliable for the evaluation of maladaptive schemas in children.

Fortalezas en adolescentes de Colombia y México que nunca han intentado suicidarse / Strengths in Colombian and Mexican teens that have never attempted suicide / A força em adolescentes colombianos e mexicanos que nunca tentaram suicidar-se

Resumen (analítico): Nuestro objetivo en la presente investigación fue analizar si las personas adolescentes de México y Colombia que nunca han intentado suicidarse, presentan más fortalezas internas y externas que quienes sí lo han intentado. Método: se trató de un diseño pre-experimental, de un estudio de caso con una medición. Participaron en el estudio 1987 estudiantes de bachillerato -hombres y mujeres de 15 a 18 años de edad-, seleccionados de manera no probabilística: 991 estudiantes de Colombia y 996 de México. Utilizamos la escala (FIE-A) para medir fortalezas, y cinco indicadores de intento de suicidio. Los resultados principales muestran que los individuos adolescentes que nunca han intentado suicidarse presentan puntajes significativamente más altos en las siguientes fortalezas: apoyo y supervisión de la madre y el padre, importancia de la salud y toma de decisiones. Concluimos que siguen siendo fortalezas protectoras las buenas relaciones parentales, específicamente la importancia que tiene para el individuo joven contar con el apoyo y comunicación del padre y de la madre.

Abstract (analytical): The objective of this research was to analyze whether Mexican and Colombian adolescents who have never attempted suicide present more internal and external strengths than those who have tried. Method: This study used a pre-experimental design and a methodology using case studies. 1,987 students from 15 to 18 years of age were selected in a non-probabilistic manner for participation in the study; 991 Colombian students and 996 Mexican students. A scale (FIE-A) was used to measure strengths and five indicators for attempted suicide. The main results showed that adolescents who have never attempted suicide had significantly higher scores in the following strengths: support and supervision of mother and father, importance of looking after their health and decision-making. The authors conclude that the key differences for young people that have never attempted suicide include good relationships with parents continue to be protective strengths, specifically the importance for a young person to have the support and communication of both parents.

Resumo (analítico): O objetivo da presente investigação foi analisar se os adolescentes mexicanos e colombianos que nunca tentaram se suicidar apresentam mais forças internas e externas que aqueles que sim o tentaram. Método: tratou-se de um desenho preexperimental, de um estudo de caso com uma medida. Participaram no estudo 1987 estudantes de bachillerato homens e mulheres de 15 a 18 anos de idade, selecionados de maneira não probabilística; 991 estudantes colombianos e 996 mexicanos. Utilizou-se a escala (FIE-A) para medir forças e cinco indicadores de tentativa de suicídio. Os resultados principais mostraram que os adolescentes que nunca tentaram se suicidar apresentaram pontuações significativamente mais altas nas seguintes forças: apoio e supervisão dos pais, importância da saúde e tomada de decisões. Conclui-se que os bons relacionamentos parentais continuam a ser pontos fortes de proteção, especificamente a importância para o jovem de ter o apoio e a comunicação de ambos os país.

Parents' and daughters' perception of family aspects associated with the onset of an eating disorder / Percepción de padres e hijas acerca de los aspectos familiares asociados con el inicio de un trastorno alimentario

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify and comprehend the family aspects associated to the development of an eating disorder (ED), from the point of view of parents with daughters diagnosed with an ED and women diagnosed with an ED. It is a qualitative study where a semi structured interview was used that gathered information about familial support, emotional expression, familial cohesion, problem solving, stressful life events and life cycle transitions, criticism about eating, body shape and weight. The sample comprised nine participants: five parents with daughters diagnosed with an ED, and four women with an ED. A content analysis derived two categories: Difficulties in rearing practices, and Parent's negative attitudes towards daughters eating, shape and weight. Parents showed difficulty with rearing practices during their daughter's childhood and adolescence that hindered the identification of the beginning of the ED. Parents also demonstrated affect by expressing approbation words when their daughters were slim and skipped this same expression for those who weren't. Both aspects were related to the development of an ED. In conclusion, it is highlighted the importance of considering familial aspects in the prevention of ED.

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar y comprender los aspectos familiares (AF) asociados al desarrollo de un trastorno de la conducta alimentaria (TCA), a partir de la percepción de padres con hijas diagnosticadas con TCA y de mujeres con diagnóstico de TCA. Este estudio cualitativo, con base a una entrevista semi-estructurada, abordó temas como: apoyo familiar, expresión de emociones, cohesión familiar, solución de problemas, situaciones de vida estresantes y de transición en el ciclo vital de la familia, burlas y comentarios negativos hacia la alimentación, la forma y el peso corporal. La muestra constó de nueve participantes: cinco padres de hijas diagnosticadas con TCA y cuatro mujeres con diagnóstico de TCA. El análisis de contenido derivó dos categorías: Dificultades en las prácticas parentales y Actitudes negativas de los padres hacia la alimentación, la forma y el peso de sus hijas. Los padres mostraron dificultades en las prácticas de crianza durante la infancia y la adolescencia de su hija, lo que obstaculizó la identificación del inicio del TCA. Además, los padres expresaban su afecto emitiendo palabras de aprobación cuando sus hijas eran delgadas y omitían expresarlo a las que no lo eran. Ambos aspectos relacionados con el desarrollo del TCA. En conclusión, destaca la importancia de considerar los AF en la prevención de los TCA.

Escala de resistencia a la presión de los amigos para el consumo de alcohol / Scale of Resistance to Peer Pressure to Alcohol Consumption

En México el consumo de alcohol se ha incrementado principalmente en los adolescentes. Aunque se ha demostrado que la habilidad de resistencia a la presión de pares es un factor que protege al joven del consumo de alcohol, tabaco y drogas, aún no se cuenta con un instrumento que evalúe dicha habilidad específicamente para el consumo de alcohol. El objetivo de este trabajo fue diseñar y validar una escala que evalúa la resistencia a la presión de pares, específicamente para el consumo de alcohol en estudiantes de nivel medio y medio superior de la ciudad de México; además se evaluó si existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en el nivel de resistencia por sexo y por nivel de consumo de alcohol. La muestra fue no probabilística y estuvo conformada por 900 estudiantes de nivel medio (38.6%) y medio superior (61.4%) de la Ciudad de México (42.9% hombres y 57.1% mujeres) con una media de edad de 15.6 años (de=2.5). Mediante un análisis factorial exploratorio se obtuvo un solo factor de seis reactivos con buen nivel de confiabilidad, posteriormente se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio el cual tuvo buenos índices de ajuste y mantuvo los seis reactivos. Las mujeres mostraron mayor resistencia a la presión de pares que los hombres y se encontró que los jóvenes que tienen un déficit en la habilidad de resistir a la presión de pares presentan mayores niveles de consumo de alcohol, por lo que es importante el fortalecimiento de dicha habilidad en programas de prevención.

In Mexico alcohol consumption has increased mainly in adolescents. It has been identified that the ability to resist peer pressure can be a factor that protects the young from alcohol, tobacco and drugs, although this does not have an instrument to assess the skill specifically for alcohol. The aim of this work was to design and validate a scale that assesses the ability to resist peer pressure specifically for alcohol in public high schools and college students from Mexico City, and assessed whether there were significant differences in the resistance level by gender and level of alcohol consumption. The sample was not random and consisted of 900 public high schools (38.6%) and college (61.4%) students of Mexico City (42.9% men and 57.1% women) with a average age was 15.6 years (sd = 2.5). Exploratory factor analysis yielded a single factor of six items with good level of reliability, afterwards was a confirmatory factor analysis in which the fit indices performed well and kept the six items. Women showed greater resistance to peer pressure than men and it was found that young people who have a deficit in the ability to resist peer pressure have higher levels of alcohol consumption so it is important to strengthen that skill in prevention programs.

Propiedades psicométricas de la escala "Dificultades en la Regulación Emocional" en español (DERS-E) para adolescentes mexicanos / Psychometric properties of the "Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale" in spanish (DERS-E) in Mexican adolescents

Introduction Emotional Dysregulation (ED) is the decreased capacity to experiment and differentiate an ample range of emotions, as well as to monitor, evaluate and modify intense emotional states. ED is associated with the most frequent emotional problems such as depression, anxiety, and with maladaptive behaviors thought to serve an emotion and impulsivity regulating function, including deliberate self-harm. The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) was developed for adults, has good internal consistency (Cronbach's α=0.93), and good test-retest reliability (r=0.88). Objectives To translate and determine the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the DERS (DERS-E) in a nonclinical Mexican adolescent's sample. Method 455 students of a public junior high school in Mexico City participated; the mean age was 13.1 ±.95 years old. The scale was administrated in groups of 40 students, who concurrently answered the Spanish version of the following measures: i) Self-injury Schedule; ii) Beck Depression Inventory; and iii) Plutchik's Impulsivity Scale. Results The first confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) showed that the data did not replicate the original six-factor structure with 36 items (χ2=22339.4, df= 6, p<0.05). An exploratory factorial analysis showed that the data adjusted with a 24 items and 4-factor model (corroborated with a second CFA: χ2=259.729, df=230, p>0.05); the subscales Cronbach' a were from .85 to .68. The validity through contrasted groups and the correlation with concurrent scales showed significant results (Pearson's r of .51 to .76, p<0.05). Conclusions The DERS-E with adolescents did not replicate the factorial structure of the original scale, but showed a similar and multidimensional structure of four factors and showed good psychometric properties with respect to internal consistency and concurrent validity.

La desregulación emocional (DE) es la capacidad disminuida para experimentar y diferenciar un amplio rango de emociones, así como para monitorear, evaluar y modificar estados emocionales intensos. La DE se ha asociado a los más frecuentes padecimientos, como depresión, ansiedad y conductas desadaptativas, incluidas la impulsividad y las autolesiones no suicidas. La escala Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS por sus siglas en inglés) fue desarrollada para evaluar estas dificultades en adultos, posee una buena consistencia interna (α de Cronbach=0.93) y buena confiabilidad test-retest (r=0.88). Objetivos Traducir y determinar las propiedades psicométricas de la DERS en español (DERS-E) en una muestra no clínica de adolescentes mexicanos. Método Participaron 455 estudiantes de una escuela secundaria pública de la Ciudad de México, de los cuales 226 eran hombres (49.7%) y 229 mujeres (50.3%); la edad promedio fue de 13.1±.95 años. La escala fue administrada grupalmente (grupos de 40 estudiantes), quienes contestaron concurrentemente los inventarios de: i) Autolesiones, ii) Depresión de Beck, iii) Impulsividad de Plutchik. Resultados El primer análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) mostró que los datos no replicaban la estructura original de seis factores con 36 reactivos (χ²=22339.4, gl=6, p<0.05). Un análisis factorial exploratorio mostró que los datos se ajustaban a un modelo de 24 reactivos y cuatro factores (corroborados con un segundo AFC: χ²=259.729, gl=230, p>0.05). Las alphas de Cronbach de cada subescala tuvieron un rango entre .85 y .68. La validez por medio de grupos contrastados y la correlación con las medidas concurrentes mostraron resultados significativos (r de Pearson de .51 a .76, p<0.05). Discusión y conclusiones La DERS-E con adolescentes no replicó la estructura factorial de la escala original, pero sí presentó una estructura similar, multidimensional, con cuatro factores y mostró buenas características psicométricas, tanto de consistencia interna como de validez concurrente.

Problemas emocionales y conductuales en niños: predictores desde la percepción de los padres y de los hijos / Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Children: Predictors from the Perception of Parents and Children

Los objetivos del presente estudio fueron: determinar si existen diferencias entre padres e hijos en prácticas parentales y problemas emocionales y conductuales de los hijos; analizar el grado de acuerdo entre la percepción de los hijos acerca de las prácticas parentales y sus problemas emocionales y conductuales y las prácticas parentales y problemas de los hijos expresados por el padre y la madre y comparar el nivel de predicción de las prácticas parentales en los problemas emocionales y conductuales de los hijos desde la perspectiva de la madre, el padre y el hijo(a). Participaron 552 niños (52.5% niños y 47.5% niñas), con una edad promedio de 10.8 años; también participaron 395 mamás y 349 papás de los niños. Se utilizó la escala de Prácticas Parentales de Andrade y Betancourt (2010) y la escala de Problemas Emocionales y Conductuales de Andrade y Betancourt (2009). En cuanto el nivel de predicción de las prácticas parentales en los problemas emocionales y conductuales de los hijos, los resultados mostraron mayores porcentajes de varianza explicados cuando los niños y niñas son los informantes que cuando lo son la madre o el padre.

The objectives of this study were to determine whether differences exist between parents and children in parenting practices, and behavioral and emotional problems of children, to analyze the degree of agreement between the perceptions of children about parenting practices and their emotional and behavioral problems, and parenting practices and problems of the children expressed by the father and mother, and comparing the prediction of parenting practices in emotional and behavioral problems of children from the perspective of the mother, father and children. 552 children participated (52.5% boys and 47.5% girls), with an average age of 10.8 years, students from public schools; 395 mothers and 349 fathers of children were also involved. To measure parenting practices Andrade and Betancourt scale (2010) was used, which consists of five dimensions for mother (Communication, Autonomy, Imposition, Behavioral control and Psychological control) and four for father. (Communication/Behavioral Control, Autonomy, Imposition and psychological control). Andrade and Betancourt scale (2009) was used for measuring emotional and behavioral problems; it assesses eight dimensions (rule breaking, somatic problems, depression, attention problems, harassment, friend's problems, aggressive behavior and thought problems). The results showed that significant differences exist between parents and children in the reporting of emotional problems but not for behavioral problems, we also found no significant differences between the assessments made for mothers and fathers in both types of problems. Regarding parenting practices, only significant differences were found between the perceptions of children, and what was expressed by mothers, in the comparison between parents and children no significant differences were found. As for predicting the level of parenting practices in emotional and behavioral problems of children, from the perspective of different informants, the results showed that the percentages of explained variance of emotional and behavioral problems of children when they are informants are higher than, when the mother and father are the informants.

Prácticas parentales y sintomatología depresiva en adolescentes / Parental practices and depressive symptoms in adolescents

The objective of this study was to analyze the predictive power that parental practices have in adolescents' depressive symptomatology considering children's and parents' gender. A non-probabilistic sample was used, consisting of 1934 adolescents, from three different cities from the Mexican Republic (26.5% from Mexico City, 26.7% from Poza Rica, Veracruz, and 46.8% from Culiacán, Sinaloa). 51.4% were males and 48.6% were females, with an age range from 11 to 17 years old, and a mean of 13.3 years old. Nine dimensions of parental practices were evaluated, five for the mother: Communication, Autonomy, Imposition, Psychological control, and Behavioral control; and four dimensions for the father: Communication/Behavioral control, Autonomy, Imposition, and Psychological control. To evaluate the depressive symptomatology, a revised and adapted for Mexican population version of the Scale of Depression of the Epidemiologic Studies Center (CES-D-R) was used. The results showed that women obtained higher scores in depressive symptomatology than men. Depressive symptomatology was associated in a positive way to psychological control and imposition, in both parents, and in a negative way with communication, autonomy and behavioral control, both maternal and paternal. Linear regression analyses were done to determine the effect of parental practices in the depressive symptomatology, which were conducted by gender and by city. In general, the results showed that women had a higher percentage of explained variance (from 26% to 31%) than men (from 6% to 25%) and the dimension that explained the higher variance in most of the groups was maternal psychological control, except on men from Mexico City and Culiacán.

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el poder predictivo de las prácticas parentales en la sintomatologia depresiva de los adolescentes, considerando el sexo del hijo y el sexo de los padres. Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilistica de 1934 adolescentes, procedentes de tres ciudades de la República Mexicana (26.5% de la Ciudad de México, 26.7% de Poza Rica, Veracruz y 46.8% de Culiacán, Sinaloa). El 51.4% fueron hombres y el 48.6% mujeres, con un rango de edad de 11 a 17 años y una media de 13.3 años. Se evaluaron nueve dimensiones de prácticas parentales, cinco para la madre: Comunicación, Autonomia, Imposición, Control psicológico y Control conductual; y cuatro dimensiones para el padre: Comunicación/Control conductual, Autonomia, Imposición y Control psicológico. Para evaluar la sintomatologia depresiva, se utilizó la versión revisada y adaptada para población mexicana de la Escala de Depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos (CES-D-R). Los resultados mostraron que las mujeres obtuvieron puntajes más altos en sintomatologia depresiva que los hombres. La sintomatologia depresiva se asoció de forma positiva con el control psicológico e imposición de ambos padres y de forma negativa con la comunicación, autonomia y control conductual tanto materno como paterno. Se realizaron análisis de regresión lineal para determinar el efecto de las prácticas parentales en la sintomatologia depresiva, los cuales se llevaron a cabo por sexo y por lugar de residencia. De manera general, los resultados mostraron que en las mujeres fue mayor el porcentaje de varianza explicado (de 26 a 31%) en comparación con los hombres (de 6 a 25%) y la dimensión que mayor varianza explicó en la mayoria de los grupos fue el control psicológico materno, excepto en los hombres de la Ciudad de México y Culiacán.

Depresión en adolescentes: El papel de los sucesos vitales estresantes / Depression in adolescents: The role of stressful life events

Introduction Stressful life events have been seen to influence the onset and development of depressive symptoms in adolescents. These are originated by family, personal and economic situations altering the individuals' normal activities. Objective and method The objective of this study was to identify the relationship with and the effect of stressful life events on symptoms of depression in adolescent high-school students, as well as to determine if there are differences between males and females. 2 292 adolescents, aged 15 to 19 years, were included (54% females and 46% males). Both the CES-D-R revised version of the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale and the Sandín SV Life Events Questionnaire were used. Statistical Analysis. In order to assess the depressive symptoms and the life events degree of stress variables, we performed descriptive analyses, Student t-tests, Pearson correlations and stepwise multiple regression analyses. Results The results indicate that 15.6% of the adolescents had depressive symptoms (CES-D-R) and 80.4% had suffered some family stressful life event. There were statistically significant differences in the scores for the life events degree of stress when it was analyzed by sex, with a higher mean being found in females. A significant relationship was found between depressive symptoms and the degree of stress of life events related with the social area (r = 0.34; p<0.001). Additionally, the degree of stress of the life events dimensions was found to predict the presence of depressive symptoms in adolescents by 21%. Conclusions The degree of stress of life events is related with the presence of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Furthermore, the fact of being a female and having experienced any stressful life event is associated with a higher depressive symptoms score.

Introducción En los adolescentes se ha observado que los sucesos de vida estresantes pueden tener una influencia en el inicio y desarrollo de los síntomas de depresión; éstos se originan de situaciones familiares, personales y económicas que alteran las actividades normales de los individuos. Objetivo y método Identificar la relación y el efecto de los sucesos vitales estresantes sobre los síntomas de depresión en adolescentes estudiantes de bachillerato, así como determinar si existen diferencias entre hombres y mujeres. Participaron 2292 adolescentes de 15 a 19 años de edad (54% mujeres y 46% hombres). Se utilizó la versión revisada en español de la Escala de Depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos (CES-D-R) y el Cuestionario de Sucesos Vitales de Sandín SV Análisis Estadístico. Para evaluar las variables síntomas de depresión y grado de estrés de los sucesos vitales se realizaron análisis descriptivos, t de Student, correlación de Pearson y regresión múltiple por pasos. Resultados Los resultados indican que 15.6% de los adolescentes presentaron síntomas de depresión (CES-D-R) y que 80.4% había sufrido algún suceso vital estresante familiar. Existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los puntajes de grados de estrés de los sucesos vitales cuando se analizó por sexo, encontrando una media más alta en mujeres. Se encontró una relación significativa entre síntomas de depresión y el grado de estrés de los sucesos vitales del área social (r = 0.34; p<0.001). Además se encontró que el grado de estrés de las dimensiones de los sucesos vitales predice en 21% la presencia de síntomas de depresión en los adolescentes. Conclusiones El grado de estrés de los sucesos vitales se relaciona con la presencia de síntomas de depresión en los adolescentes. Además, el hecho de ser mujer y haber vivido algún suceso vital estresante se asocia a un mayor puntaje de síntomas de depresión.

Control parental y problemas emocionales y de conducta en adolescentes / Parental control and emotional and behavioral problems in adolescents

El propósito de esta investigación es determinar si existen diferenciasde acuerdo con el género de los padres en los efectos del control parental psicológico y conductual en los problemas emocionales y de conducta de los hijos hombres y mujeres. Seseleccionó una muestra no probabilística de 587 estudiantesde secundaria pública de Ciudad de México. El 46,8% fueron hombres y el 53,2%, mujeres, con una media de edad de 13,8 años. Se utilizó la Escala de Percepción de Control Paterno y Materno para Adolescentes y la versión ajustada del Youth Self-Report. Los resultados mostraron que, en general, el control psicológico tanto materno como paterno tuvo una mayor influencia que el control conductual en la presencia de problemas emocionales y de conducta.

The purpose of this research project was to determine whether gender made a difference with respect to the effectsof psychological and behavioral parental control on the emotional and behavioral problems in male and female adolescents. A non-random sample of 587 Mexico City public high school students with a mean age of 13.8 was selected, of which 46.8% were male and 53.2% female. The Maternal and Paternal Control Perception Scale for Adolescents and the adjustedversion of the Youth Self-Report were used. The overall results showed that both maternal and paternal psychological control had a greater influence than behavioral control on thepresence of emotional and behavioral problems.

Alcohólicos Anónimos (AA): aspectos relacionados con la adherencia (afiliación) y diferencias entre recaídos y no recaídos / Alcoholics Anomymous (AA): affiliation and related aspects, differences between relapsed and non-relapsed alcoholics in process of recovery

The work of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) in fighting against alcohol abuse and alcoholism has placed it as an institution of great importance in Mexico and around the world. Although its labor has been subject for controversy, there is a lot of evidence that frequent attendance and affiliation to the groups and sessions can be very helpful for many individuals. Research has been dedicated to the identification of the elements contributing to affiliation, such as involvement, commitment, and participation, or the level of adherence to the program's beliefs and activities. Some studies have used the time of membership and the frequency of attendance to AA as indicators of affiliation, but there are some authors who think that it is difficult to explore it using only these variables. Other authors have mentioned that alcoholics can go to AA for many reasons, but that mere attendance is not enough for reaching or maintaining abstinence. It has been established that when the impact of AA is measured only by the time of membership or the frequency of attendance, it is not possible to comprehend the essence of the subjective and behavioral characteristics involved in the process. Thus, it is important to differentiate between these and the true affiliation. There are only a few researches about the elements forming the affiliation to AA, and the ones available do not bring light over the process of its beginning. Some authors say that it is something more than the time or the frequency of attendance to meetings, and that is possible that it is a complex and heterogeneous phenomenon formed by several behaviors and beliefs about the 12 steps. Some studies have pointed out the interaction of different factors to achieve affiliation, but they have also remarked the need for including more variables in measuring it. One conclusion is that affiliation is a whole dimension that encompasses attendance and the level of participation in the activities. There are different questionnaires to measure the affiliation process, but most of them are difficult to interpret, and little is known about their fitting to AA members' perspective of things. Research in Mexico is complicated because of a lack of instruments developed from the local situation and experience. There are data that about 14 000 alcoholics enter AA every year. Relapse is high during the first three months (near 50%), but almost half of the persons that stay show adherence to the program, and eventually reach abstinence. Yet, the topic of the specific elements of affiliation, as well as their influence to maintain abstinence, has not received enough attention. The objectives of this study were: 1. to analyze the elements that constitute an affiliation profile, 2. to know if such elements are different or if they are part of a single construct, and 3. to find out if the amount of affiliation (the way an alcoholic involves him/herself in the activities of the group) can distinguish between those who have relapsed and those who have not. Method The sample was non-probabilistic; it included 192 AA members (87% men and 13% women). Average age was 42 years old. Two groups were formed: relapsed and non-relapsed (143 who did not consume any amount of alcohol since they entered AA or 10 years or more ago, and 49 who consumed any amount of alcohol within the four years prior to the interview). The questionnaire included scales to measure the service, the practice of the 12 steps, the spiritual awakening, sponsoring, time spent in AA, frequency of attendance, and reading of the materials. The questionnaire was specifically designed for measuring affiliation. Results There were significative differences in the mean participation time (it was higher in the non-relapsed subjects: t = -3.225, df=181, p<.00), in the activities related to <> (they were more frequent and more extended in time in the non-relapsed subjects: X² = 7.76, p< .01; t = -2.258, df= 145, p< .02), in <> (most of the non-relapsed subjects are one: X² = 15.06, p< .000), in the practice of the steps 3-12 (non-relapsed AA practiced them more: X² = 5.16, p<.02), and in having the spiritual awakening experience (more frequent in the non-relapsed subjects: X² = 4.282, p<. 05). Internal consistency tests were executed, as well as a factor analysis to explore if the items that differentiated between the groups could form a single dimension. The first analysis resulted in a satisfactory internal consistency (cc = .67). The items were grouped in a unique dimension with an explained variance of 43.6%. An indicator for affiliation was developed through the sum of the scores from variables grouped in the factor analysis. A comparison using this indicator showed significant differences in the degree of involvement in AA (Z = -3.367, p<.001). Non-relapsed subjects had an affiliation ranging from high to very high. Discussion Results suggest that affiliation is an event formed by several elements that, either separated or combined, can behave significantly different between relapsed and non-relapsed AA members. This could mean that such variables are adherence or affiliation indicators. These elements are not exclusive or unrelated entities, but they constitute a measure of affiliation to AA. Its structure leads to consider them as part of the same phenomenon which could help to determine more precisely the degree of affiliation; the categorization made evident that there is an important association with abstinence. Thus, affiliation scores varied importantly between groups; the highest ones were on those who have maintained abstinence. It is possible to deduct that alcoholic subjects who participate more actively and during more time in AA get more positive results. These results concur with others in the sense that reaching long periods of abstinence in AA is related to a greater involvement in the activities of the groups. Likewise, the frequency of attendance to the meetings did not differentiate between relapsed and non-relapsed; this could suggest that just being there is not enough to obtain a satisfactory result. AA literature points out to the fact that attendance is a necessary condition for recovering, but its benefits reduce considerably without a genuine desire of involvement. The performance of the affiliation indicators identified in this study suggests the possibility of considering them as a dimension that explain the amount in which it exists in AA members. The fact that such dimension emerged from the experience of members from national groups represents an opportunity to use it as a valid scale in broader researches with bigger samples, and a chance to find out in a more reliable way the real role of AA in the recovery process. Since AA represents one of the most popular choices for the treatment of alcoholism in Mexico, research should continue for broadening the knowledge that health professionals, researchers, and everyone involved in prevention have about this organization. As shown by the results of this study, a better understanding of the benefits produced by the active participation in AA could help to motivate not only attendance to the meetings, but a full involvement in the activities suggested by the groups. The final effects may result in a reduction of the health costs generated by alcoholism and related problems attention.

La labor realizada por los grupos de Alcohólicos Anónimos (AA) para combatir el problema del alcoholismo los ha convertido en una de las opciones importantes. La adherencia o afiliación a estos grupos puede ser benéfica para ciertos alcohólicos, por lo que la investigación ha buscado identificar los aspectos que contribuyen a su establecimiento. Aunque la investigación aún no aclara el proceso mediante el que se logra, la ha destacado como un constructo que entrelaza la asistencia a las reuniones y el nivel de participación en los grupos, y se menciona que, cuanto mayor es el involucramiento, tiende a mejorar el pronóstico del alcohólico. A pesar de este panorama, en nuestro contexto, el tema de los componentes específicos de la afiliación a AA, así como su relevancia para mantener la abstinencia en comparación con la recaída, no ha recibido atención suficiente por parte de los investigadores en alcoholismo. Este trabajo tiene como objetivos: explorar elementos que pueden constituir un perfil de afiliación a AA, conocer si esos elementos son diferentes o forman parte de un mismo constructo y si la graduación de afiliación (clasificación de la forma en que el alcohólico se involucra en las diferentes actividades de los grupos) puede diferenciar entre quienes han recaído o no en el consumo de alcohol. Método La muestra fue no probabilística intencional; incluyó a 192 miembros de AA (87% hombres y 1 3% mujeres). Se formaron dos grupos: no recaídos y recaídos (143 no consumieron ninguna cantidad de alcohol y 49 consumieron cualquier cantidad de alcohol después de por lo menos tres meses de abstinencia). Se diseñó un cuestionario para evaluar la afiliación a AA; en éste se indaga el servicio, el apadrinamiento, la práctica de los 12 pasos, el <>, el tiempo en AA, la frecuencia de asistencia y la lectura de literatura de AA. Resultados Hubo diferencias significativas en el tiempo promedio de participación (t = -3.225, gl = 181, p<.00), en la actividad de <> (tenerlo: χ² = 7.76, p<.01 y horas dedicadas: t = -2.258, gl = 145, p<.02), tener la función de <> ( χ²=15.06, p< .000), en la práctica reciente de los pasos 3 al 12 ( χ² = 5.166, p<.02) y en la experiencia del <> ( χ² = 4.282, p<. 05), todos mayores en los no recaídos. Tras eliminar <>, se encontró una consistencia interna adecuada (α =.67) y un análisis factorial mostró que los reactivos se agrupaban en una sola dimensión, con una varianza explicada de 43.6%. Se construyó un indicador del grado de afiliación usando la sumatoria de los puntajes de las variables agrupadas y se trabajó una comparación por quintiles, la cual mostró diferencias significativas según el grado de involucramiento en AA (Z = -3.367, p<.001). Los no recaídos mostraron una afiliación que va de alta a muy alta. Discusión En este estudio, la afiliación a AA parecería un suceso compuesto por distintos elementos que se comportaron de modo significativamente diferente entre los recaídos y no recaídos. No fueron entidades separadas, sino partes de un mismo constructo que, trabajado en forma de quintiles (muy baja, baja, moderada, alta y muy alta), evidenció una asociación importante con la abstinencia. Los índices variaron de manera significativa entre los grupos de recaídos y no recaídos; los mayores se vieron en quienes han mantenido la abstinencia por largos periodos. Este resultado confirma hallazgos de estudios anteriores, en el sentido de que los alcohólicos más participativos en AA obtienen resultados más favorables. Los indicadores de afiliación detallados sugieren la posibilidad de considerarlos como una dimensión que dé cuenta del grado en que se manifiesta en los miembros de AA. Además, el que emergiera de la experiencia de los miembros de grupos nacionales representa la oportunidad de estructurarla como una escala válida para futuras investigaciones con muestras más grandes e indagar con mayor confiabilidad sobre el papel que desempeña AA en el proceso de recuperación del alcoholismo.

[Resistance to peer and partner pressure and tobacco and alcohol use among adolescents]. / Resistencia a la presión de pares y pareja y consumo de tabaco y alcohol en adolescentes.

INTRODUCTION: Drug consumption constitutes a public health problem in Mexico. In the international literature and from the health promotion perspective, the Life Skills Approach proposed by the World Health Organization identifies the ability to resist pressure as a key component in the prevention of legal and illegal drug use among adolescents. OBJECTIVE: An instrument for measuring this ability was developed and validated in order to confirm whether, as the empirical evidence suggests, it differs between users and non-users of alcohol and tobacco. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The sample was made up of 5651 adolescents, 2637 (47.9%) of whom were male and 2864 (52.1%) female. These participants were selected at random from among public high school pupils in Mexico City, and average age was 16.7 years. The instrument used was that validated in the first phase of the study. To measure patterns of use, we used a scale based on indicators derived from the National Addiction Survey (2002). RESULTS: Factor analysis yielded three factors: peer pressure acceptance, partner pressure acceptance and peer/partner pressure resistance. Non-users of alcohol and tobacco scored higher in the ability to resist pressure than those who had used alcohol and tobacco in the last month. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these results, the aim is to develop an addiction prevention program for public high school pupils in Mexico City.

La espiritualidad y su relación con la recuperación del alcoholismo en integrantes de Alcohólicos Anónimos (AA)

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Summary: In alcoholism research, the exploration of the spirituality have a great importance. Some authors keep distance from this concept and it has been commonly criticized. However, other researchers (Gorsuch, Connors, Tonigan, and Miller) have agreed in pointing out to this and other variables, like religion for example, as important elements that protect individuals from addiction, also as factors that favor treatment and mediate in long abstinence periods. According to Morjaria and Orford, the assumption of a link between spirituality and alcoholism exist because is one of the principles of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) foundation. In the present, the work of AA is one of the most popular approaches in recovering from alcoholism, within Mexico and in other countries as well, and although its effectiveness over alcohol consumption is still debatable, not well documented and inconclusive. There is evidence suggesting that a regular participation in the group meetings could benefit a lot of individuals; especially those whose participation in all the activities is more enthusiastic and those who develop more beliefs inside the groups. A key element in AA's philosophy is the acceptance of a spiritual strength that comes from a bigger power than themselves (Higher Power: can be understood as a "whole" or the power represented by God), which helps in the recovery process. AA acknowledge the importance of religious thoughts, and the relevance of spiritual tradition in the recovery of each alcoholic, however, the core of the treatment is not placed on these aspects, but it is on spirituality. According to AA, every individual may have his own definition of spirituality and it is outlined by his personal orientation. In that respect, Forcehimes, Kurtz, and Ketchman said that spirituality is a transformation breakthrough marked by a personal experience of "spiritual awakening", all resulting from regular participation to the meetings and from the daily practice of the twelve-step program. The twelve-step program represents one of the most important components in the recovery strategy of AA and reflects the spiritual nature of the program. DiClemente and Gabhainn have noted that the practice of the steps has fundamental implications in reaching and maintaining abstinence, especially for those who practice them on a regular way. However, available evidence about the benefits that each step brings to the alcoholics is still limited and sometimes controversial. There are very few investigations in Mexico about the role of spirituality in the alcoholic recovery process. AA have not been sufficiently studied and there is a lot unknown about their treatment strategies. The objective of this study is to know if the effectiveness of the practice of the 12 steps, the frequency of their practice, and the experience of the "spiritual awakening" (that AA consider as a consequence of practicing the steps) influence on the maintenance of abstinence in members of AA. The sample was non probabilistic and included 192 AA members from traditional groups (or "an hour and a half" groups, named after the time meetings last) from southern Mexico City area. Individuals were divided in two groups: relapsed and not relapsed. The first group included 49 alcoholics (90 percent of males, 10 percent of females) who relapsed after an abstinence period of three or more months within AA (abstinence mean = 2.4 years). The second group included 143 subjects (86 percent of males, 14 percent of females) who have not relapsed since they entered AA or for a ten year period or longer. To determine the influence of the spiritual principles of the 12 steps program, a question was designed to measure the practice of each one of them, as well as a scale to explore the frequency of such practice. Also, since AA considers the "spiritual awakening" as a result of working with the steps, a question about its occurrence was included. Results showed that not relapsed individuals have practiced significantly more steps (mean=9, SD=4.1) than the relapsed ones (mean=7, SD=4.4) (t=2.304, df=190, p=.02). Results also showed that frequency in the practice of: thinking about events that led to alcoholism (steps 4 and 5), humbleness to accept help from a Higher Power (steps 6, 7, and 11), acceptance of responsibility to reduce the consequences of addiction (steps 8, and 9), and helping other alcoholics (step 12), is significantly different between both groups; not relapsed individuals had a more frequent practice of these steps. Since AA assumes that working the steps leads to experience a spiritual conversion or "spiritual awakening" (it implies a change in the self-concept, in the view of the world, and stop being self-centered), a regression analysis was performed to test this assumption. Results suggested that a greater involvement in steps 4 to 12 -usually considered as steps for action and maintenance- increases 10 percent the probability for experiencing the "spiritual awakening" (p=.000). Besides this experience increases two times the probability for staying sober in not relapsed subjects (Exp[B]=2.095, CI=1.032-4.253, p=.04). No statistical differences were found in the practice of steps 13, but this does not mean that they are not important, for these are the most practiced steps in both groups. However, the fact that relapsed alcoholics put great value upon these steps, points out their willingness to stop consuming (apparently they have accepted being powerless before alcohol, and to surrender their will and life to a Higher Power), but it also underlines their difficulty in attaching to some of the beliefs and activities that AA consider as base to complete the practice the steps and to develop spirituality. Several of these activities are related to elements in the program that mean more action and certain degree of confusion and discouragement for those who focus in staying sober only based on a vague idea of what constitutes the Higher Power. AA recognizes the first three steps as the facilitators of abstinence and as the beginning of the path to "spiritual awakening" through an aid that transcends the individual (Higher Power), but they also emphasize that many times this is not enough for the recovery. Paradoxically, they state that this condition could lead to a feeling of false security that could invite the alcoholic to flirt with the idea of having "just one drink". Therefore, it is not casual that relapsed individuals in the sample of this study focus on practicing the first three steps, though more research is needed to further confirmation. These results allow concluding that spacing out the practice of the 12 steps or not practicing them at all, produces low levels of spirituality, which could be the cause of a relapse. Results also showed that a higher level of spirituality (linked to the practice of more steps) has an important influence on the recovery of alcoholics, particularly for those whose practice of the steps is more regular. The sample of this study showed that its particular way to develop spirituality (spiritual awakening) and therefore maintain abstinence requires of a process that involves cognitive, emotional, and behavioral activity (steps 4-12), and not only to embrace the conviction of alcoholism as a disease susceptible of being cured (steps 1-3). Finally it is important to indicate that the 12 steps program represent a particular way of expressing spirituality, and that they are limited to specific cognitions and practices; thus, more research is required to replicate these results with other measures of spirituality.

Indicadores psicosociales de motivación del consumo de marihuana y/o cocaína / Psychosocial indicators for marihuana and/or cocaine use motivation

Con el fin de identificar indicadores de protección y riesgo del consumo de marihuana y/o cocaína en el contexto de la teoría de la motivación de Maslow, se compararon los significados psicológicos de cinco conceptos clave (familia, amigos, yo, cocaína y marihuana) en jóvenes del sexo masculino, usuarios de mrihuana, cocaína y ambas drogas que solicitaron tratamiento y estudiantes no consumidores de drogas. Los resultados mostraron diferencias en la evaluación en los cinco conceptos entre los grupos, encontrándose entre los no usuarios mejores evaluaciones en la familia, los amigos y el yo (en acuerdo con postulado de psicopatogénesis de la teoría psicosocial de la motivación de Maslow), así como peores evaluaciones de las drogas. Como indicadores de protección de la familia, los amigos y el yo, se encuentra la satisfacción de nedesidades deficitarias e indicadores que sugieren la activación del circuito de gratificación, mientras que como indicadores de riesgo, sobresalieron componentes negativos incompatibles con los indicadores de protección. Entre los indicadores de riesgo asociados con las sustancias, se identificaron componentes positivos que muestran la activación del circuito de recompensa. Los resultados son congruentes con los factores reportados por la literatura, considerándose importante explorarlos más a fondo, con el fin de identificar de prevención y tratamiento para cada grupo de usuarios

In order to identify marihuana and/or cocaine use protective and risk indicators within the context of Maslow´s theory of motivation, we compared the psychological meanings of five key concepts (family, friends, self, cocaine and marihuana) among young male users of marihuana and cocaine, and users of both drugs who requested treatment, and non-drug user students. Results showed differences in the evaluation of five key concepts in the groups, where we found higher evaluation of family, friends and self in non-users (concordant with the psycho-pathogenesis postulate of psychosocial Maslow motivational theory), in addition to lower evaluations of drugs. Taking family, friends, and self as protective indicators, we find satisfaction of deficit needs and indicators that suggest encephalic reward circuit activation, whereas risk indicators are mostly negative components, incompatible with protective indicators. Among risk indicators associated with the substances, we identified positive components that show reward circuit activation. Results correspond with the factors reported in the literature,a nd we consider it important to explore them in greater depth in order to identify the prevention and treatment needs of each drug user group

Compromiso organizacional en una muestra de trabajadores mexicanos / Dimensions of organizational commitment among mexican workers

El compromiso organizacional es un constructo que presenta gran interés para los psicólogos y aquellos involucrados con el recurso humano. Las investigaciones se han dirigido a determinar aquellos aspectos que lo forman y mantienen, sin embargo hay revisiones teóricas que evidencian que aún hay diferencias en la conceptualización y por tanto en su medición. La presente investigación adoptó una posición integradora ante las diferentes perspectivas de estudio para determinar si la aplicación de los instrumentos más utilizados permite hacer evidente las dimensiones que engloban este constructo. Se aplicó el Cuestionario OCQ de Mowday, Steers y Porter (1982) y el Cuestionario de Compromiso Organizacional de Meyer, Allen y Smith (1993), en una muestra de 233 trabajadores de dos organizaciones: pública y privada, 52% hombres y 48% mujeres. Los resultados muestran cuatro dimensiones: identificación - implicación, compromiso afectivo, compromiso de continuidad (faltade alternativas) y compromiso normativo. Se evidenció que este constructo para la muestra estudiada es principalmente una actitud que le lleva a sentir apego y mantener una conducta consistente para evitar perder los beneficios que la organización le brinda. Ambos cuestionarios aplicados en forma conjunta mejoran la medición del compromiso organizacional (AU)

Organizational commitment is a construct of high interest for psychologists and in general for people involved in human resources. Research has addressed those aspects that conform and maintain it. However, literature reviews show differences in conceptualization and hence in measurement of organizational commitment. This study holds a comprehensive perspective to determine whether the use of most common instruments identifies the dimensions of this construct. Mowday, Steers and Porter’s OCQ Questionnaire (1982) and Meyer, Allen y Smith’s Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (1993) were administered to a sample of 233 workers in two kinds of organizations –one public the other private.52 percent of the subjects were males and 48 percent females. The results show four dimensions:Identification–Implication, Affective Commitment, Continuance Commitment (lack of alternatives) and Normative Commitment. It seemed clear that this construct is mainly an attitude that leads to a sense of attachment and to maintain a consistent behavior to avoid the loss of the benefits provided by the organization. The joint administration of both questionnaires seems to improve the measurement of Organizational Commitment (AU)

[Validation of a questionnaire for measurement of beliefs about the climacteric]. / Validación de un cuestionario para la medición de las creencias sobre el climaterio.

OBJECTIVE: To design an instrument for measuring beliefs about the social, psychological, and physiological consequences of women's climacteric stage. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included 340 women affiliated to Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales para los Trabajadores del Estado (Institute for Social Services and Security for State Workers, ISSSTE) (age mean = 49.46, (SD 7.92). The mean number of pregnancies in the sample was 3.75 (SD 2.57), and the mean number of born children was 3.21 (SD 2.19); 48% of women were premenopausal, 10.9% perimenopausal, and 40.6% postmenopausal. The instrument consisted of 25 items. RESULTS: A factorial analysis with Varimax rotation was carried out. Four factors were confirmed: disadvantages (alpha = 0.769), advantages (alpha = 0.839), physiological (alpha = 0.659), and psychological (alpha = 0.711). CONCLUSION: This instrument shows good internal consistency, and measures four climacteric belief groups: a) beliefs on disadvantages, b) beliefs on advantages, c) beliefs on physiological ailments, and d) beliefs on psychological symptoms. All three confirmed dimensions of the climacteric phase have been proposed in other studies.