A month in a horse's life: healing process of a fractured third metatarsal bone from medieval Viljandi, Estonia.

The remains of a horse's hind foot - a third metatarsal bone and three phalanges - were found in a presumed waste pit of a prosperous medieval household in Viljandi, Estonia, dated from the second half of the 13th to the beginning of the 15th century. The metatarsal bone had been broken during the horse's lifetime and showed evidence of partial healing. Using archaeological, zooarchaeological, morphological, microscopic, densitometric and radiographic analyses, we investigated the bones and the healing process in order to understand animal treatment in a medieval urban context. Our results show that the fracture was a complete comminuted fracture that appears to have been closed and stable, caused most probably by a trauma from a strong impact. Based on callus formation and the worn edges of the separated diaphysis, the horse had survived for at least a month and used the injured foot to some extent. We suggest that the horse was treated by splinting the foot and keeping the animal in a standing position during the healing process. Eventually the horse died because of a wound infection, or was killed. The relatively long period of careful treatment indicates the animal's economic or emotional value.

Evaluation of butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine in captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) immobilization.

OBJECTIVE: The butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine fixed-dose combination (BAM, respectively, 30-12-12 mg mL-1) with subsequent antagonism by naltrexone-atipamezole was evaluated for reversible immobilization of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, clinical trial. ANIMALS: Twelve cheetahs (six males and six females, weighing 37-57 kg) housed in enclosures, were immobilized at Hoedspruit Endangered Species Centre in the Republic of South Africa. METHODS: BAM volume dose rate was 0.009-0.014 mL kg-1 (mean ± standard deviation 0.010 ± 0.001 mL kg-1). Total dose in all animals was 0.5 mL. The actual doses were as follows: butorphanol (0.29 ± 0.04 mg kg-1), azaperone (0.12 ± 0.01 mg kg-1) and medetomidine (0.12 ± 0.01 mg kg-1). Physiologic variables and quality of immobilization were recorded every 5 minutes beginning at 15-20 minutes after darting. Arterial blood samples were collected three times at 20, 30 and 40 minutes after darting from all animals for analysis of blood oxygenation and acid-base status. RESULTS: The inductions were calm and smooth and mean induction time was 4.0 ± 1.1 minutes. Heart rate (50 ± 9 beats minute-1) and respiratory frequency (20 ± 3 breaths minute-1) were stable throughout immobilization. The recovery time after reversing with naltrexone and atipamezole was 9.1 ± 3.6 minutes. CONCLUSIONS: and clinical relevance BAM proved to be a reliable and cardiovascular stable drug combination for immobilization of cheetahs.

Evaluation of butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine (BAM) in captive blesbok immobilization (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi).

OBJECTIVE: The fixed-dose combination of butorphanol, azaperone and medetomidine (BAM; 30, 12 and 12 mg mL-1, respectively) with subsequent antagonism by naltrexone-atipamezole was evaluated for reversible immobilization of captive blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, clinical trial. ANIMALS: Sixteen blesbok (four males and twelve females), weighing 52.5-71.0 kg, were immobilized in South Africa. METHODS: The total dose of BAM ranged from 0.5 to 0.7 mL for females and 0.7 to 0.9 mL for males. In seven animals chosen randomly, 8000 units of hyaluronidase was added to the dart. Physiologic variables were recorded every 5 minutes beginning at 10-20 minutes after darting. Arterial blood samples were collected three times at 20, 30 and 40 minutes after darting for analysis of blood acid-base status. RESULTS: The mean administered doses of BAM were as follows: butorphanol (0.34 ± 0.08 mg kg-1), azaperone (0.14 ± 0.03 mg kg-1) and medetomidine (0.14 ± 0.03 mg kg-1). The inductions were calm and smooth. The mean induction time was 9.6 ± 3.2 minutes with just BAM and 5.1 ± 0.8 minutes with BAM and hyaluronidase combination. Heart rate (45 ± 6 beats minute-1) and respiratory frequency (38 ± 4 breaths minute-1) were stable throughout immobilization. The mean arterial blood pressure for all animals was stable but elevated (137 ± 7 mmHg). Rectal temperature slightly increased over time but remained within an acceptable range. The recovery time after administering naltrexone and atipamezole was 4.8 ± 0.7 minutes. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The BAM combination proved to be reliable and effective in blesbok.

Evaluation of BAM (butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine) in captive African lion (Panthera leo) immobilization.

OBJECTIVE: The combination of butorphanol, azaperone and medetomidine (BAM) with subsequent antagonism by naltrexone-yohimbine or naltrexone-atipamezole was evaluated for reversible immobilization of captive African lions (Panthea leo). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, clinical trial. ANIMALS: Twenty lions, 11 males and nine females, weighing 38-284 kg were immobilized in South Africa. METHODS: The BAM volume dose rate administered was 0.005-0.008 mL kg-1 (0.6 mL 100 kg-1). Physiologic variables were recorded every 5 minutes. Four arterial blood samples were collected from all animals at 20, 30, 40 and 50 minutes after immobilization for analysis of blood-gases and acid-base status. RESULTS: The actual doses administered were as follows: butorphanol, 0.18±0.03 mg kg-1; azaperone, 0.07±0.01 mg kg-1; and medetomidine, 0.07±0.01 mg kg-1. The inductions were calm and smooth, and induction time ranged from 4 to 10 minutes (7±2 minutes). The amount of time needed to work with each lion was 70 minutes, and no additional drug doses were needed. Heart rate (40±8 beats minute-1) and respiratory frequency (15±4 breaths minute-1) were stable throughout immobilization. The mean arterial blood pressure of all animals was stable but elevated (142±16 mmHg). The rectal temperature slightly increased over time but remained within acceptable range. The recovery time was significantly shorter when using naltrexone and atipamezole (9±1 minutes) compared to using naltrexone and yohimbine (22±7 minutes). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The BAM combination proved to be reliable for general veterinary anaesthesia in lions. During anaesthesia, minor veterinary procedures such a blood collection, intubation, vaccination and collaring could safely be performed with no additional dosing required.