[Human and animal health]. / Santé humaine et santé animale.

The concept of "one health" applies perfectly to human health and animal health because many diseases are zoonoses. There are many historical examples of effective collaboration between veterinary medicine and human medicine in the development of the first vaccines used in the world (smallpox, rabies, tetanus, diphtheria, tuberculosis, etc.). But when a new disease appears in animals, the risk of possible transmission to humans is difficult to estimate. In the latter case, the loss of consumer confidence in the face of scientific uncertainties can cause a health crisis (examples of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and H5N1 avian plague). But the most serious crisis that we have known since early 2020 is Covid-19 pandemic, which confirms that the modification of the ecosystems of certain wild species such as the horseshoe bats can have significant consequences for the public health. Animals infected with Covid-19 have been contaminated by humans but we cannot currently exclude an animal reservoir risk for SARS-CoV-2 which has circulated around the world.

[Covid-19 and the animal world, from a still mysterious origin towards an always unpredictable future]. / Rapport 21-11. Covid-19 et monde animal, d'une origine encore mystérieuse vers un futur toujours incertain.

Although the emergence of Covid-19 in China has not been clearly elucidated, the hypothesis of an animal origin remains the most likely. It is supported by the presence of the horseshoe bat suspected to be the progenitor of SARS-CoV-2 and by the scarcity of pork, due to African swine fever, diverting consumers to exotic animals of breeding sold in the markets. During this pandemic, several animal species were affected by SARS-CoV-2. Sporadic cases were first reported in pets (dogs and cats) infected by their owners, then in large feline species and apes infected in zoos by their nurses. The most significant human-to-animal transmission has occurred in mink farms, especially in the Netherlands and Denmark, requiring the euthanasia of several million animals, with mink in turn having contaminated men and stray or nomadic cats. The study of natural or experimental transmissions of SARS-CoV-2 has made it possible to identify the most receptive animal species: American minks and raccoon dogs, and to a lesser extent stray or nomadic cats, which could become an animal reservoir due to their sensitivity to this virus and their extending prolificacy. The European Commission decided on May 17, 2021 to strengthen the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 infections in minks and other mustelids, as well as in raccoon dogs, highlighting stressing that the epidemiological assessment of the risk presented by the he appearance of SARS-CoV-2 in these susceptible species was a public health priority.

[General introduction to animal and human coronaviruses]. / Introduction générale sur les coronavirus animaux et humains.

Coronaviruses are RNA viruses classified into Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus. Their name comes from their conformation with the observation of spicules forming a sort of crown. Coronaviruses seem to come from bats, and more particularly Alphacoronaviruses and Betacoronaviruses (the genus where zoonoses are observed), while birds are the source of Gammacoronaviruses and Deltacoronaviruses. The first coronavirus identified was that of avian infectious bronchitis in 1931 in the United States, while the first coronaviruses were described in humans only in the 1960s. This is why coronaviruses were mainly known in the veterinary community. Most Alphacoronaviruses are species specific. They can be responsible for serious diseases such as the cat coronavirus, responsible for feline infectious peritonitis, transmissible gastroenteritis (GET) in piglets and porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV). Finally, a deltacoronavirus can be found in both pigs (PD CoV UKU15) and birds.

[Public health issues associated with seafood consumption]. / Problèmes de santé publique liés à la consommation de fruits de mer.

Seafood could be a solution to meet global food demand that will double by 2050. Seafood includes a wide variety of edible marine organisms, except fish and mammals. These are molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and algae. Like any food, seafood can involve hazards transmitted to humans through food, which affect the health of the consumer. These hazards are both biological (viruses, bacteria, parasites) and chemical (toxins, allergens, chemicals, microplastics). The exposure of populations to these hazards through seafood consumption can be notably explained by their mode of production and the dietary habits. Firstly, the sanitary quality of products reflects the quality of the aquatic environment from which they are taken, which can be contaminated by various types of pollution (faecal or chemical, chronic or accidental). The products are then handled, often treated without using additives or chemical preservatives, and finally distributed without any other means of preservation than refrigeration or freezing. Finally, the dietary habits of seafood favour exposure to certain hazards. Seafood safety must be integrated throughout the food chain, under the responsibility shared by all stakeholders. Seafood safety appears to be an emerging public health issue of global scope, because the sea does not stop at borders.

The governance of veterinary services and their role in the control of avian influenza.

Veterinary Services play a key role in controlling avian influenza by means of surveillance of animal diseases (including zoonoses), early detection and rapid response. To improve animal health worldwide, and in particular to control emerging and re-emerging diseases, it is necessary to build the capacity of Veterinary Services and improve their governance, in accordance with the quality standards in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code, which were adopted by all Member Countries and Territories of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). An OIE evaluation will enable those countries who have requested the evaluation to conduct a gap analysis and, subsequently, to implement national projects for improving the governance of Veterinary Services, possibly with donor aid.

[Survey of foot and mouth disease in France]. / Le système de surveillance de la fièvre aphteuse en France.

The Foot and Mouth disease is considered a relatively mild disease in susceptible animals but it has a considerable economical impact in France and worldwide due to the huge economical losses that it generates. A system for the prevention of the disease was developed thirty years ago and has since been continuously improved. The current system for the prevention of FMD is based on training and information of all those involved in the surveillance of susceptible animals, over all the national territory, and on the control of imported animals and animal products. This system, developed in close collaboration with the European Commission and the other EU member states, allows control measures to be implemented almost instantaneously, if a case is suspected to avoid spreading of the disease.

[Pierre Fauchard (1677?-1761). Dental expert and master surgeon of Saint-Côme of Paris]. / Pierre Fauchard (1677?-1761). Expert pour les dents, et maître chirurgien de Saint-Côme de Paris.

Pierre Fauchard has raised enigmas namely as regards his professional life which we try to elucidate by the analysis of his book. He began his dental training with a naval surgeon who did not sail anymore and he started practicing at the age of 19 with some dangerous interventions in the mouth of a friend. He benefited from the imbroglio of his time when the dental practice was not much supervised. In 1699 there was a compulsory examination to receive the title of 'Dental expert' which Fauchard obtained around 1708 in Paris. A short time afterwards it appeared that he undertook studies to become a Master-Surgeon, which title he obtained around 1714-1717, if one follows the 'Observations' in his book. As a matter of fact he operated already before 1715 with the great master-surgeons of his time, which would have been paradoxical if he had been only an Expert whose surgical operations described were not allowed by the strict regulations of the College Saint-Côme. His position as master-surgeon is revealed in the 1758 register of this company. The title-page of his book indicates it too by its presentation, as one reads 'by Pierre Fauchard surgeon' and at the next line: 'dentist in Paris'. The present paper intends to show that P. Fauchard was a practitioner with serious and long medical and surgical studies behind him.