Using Artificial Intelligence to Gauge Competency on a Novel Laparoscopic Training System.

OBJECTIVE: Laparoscopic surgical skill assessment and machine learning are often inaccessible to low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC). Our team developed a low-cost laparoscopic training system to teach and assess psychomotor skills required in laparoscopic salpingostomy in LMICs. We performed video review using AI to assess global surgical techniques. The objective of this study was to assess the validity of artificial intelligence (AI) generated scoring measures of laparoscopic simulation videos by comparing the accuracy of AI results to human-generated scores. DESIGN: Seventy-four surgical simulation videos were collected and graded by human participants using a modified OSATS (Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills). The videos were then analyzed via AI using 3 different time and distance-based calculations of the laparoscopic instruments including path length, dimensionless jerk, and standard deviation of tool position. Predicted scores were generated using 5-fold cross validation and K-Nearest-Neighbors to train classifiers. SETTING: Surgical novices and experts from a variety of hospitals in Ethiopia, Cameroon, Kenya, and the United States contributed 74 laparoscopic salpingostomy simulation videos. RESULTS: Complete accuracy of AI compared to human assessment ranged from 65-77%. There were no statistical differences in rank mean scores for 3 domains, Flow of Operation, Respect for Tissue, and Economy of Motion, while there were significant differences in ratings for Instrument Handling, Overall Performance, and the total summed score of all 5 domains (Summed). Estimated effect sizes were all less than 0.11, indicating very small practical effect. Estimated intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of Summed was 0.72 indicating moderate correlation between AI and Human scores. CONCLUSIONS: Video review using AI technology of global characteristics was similar to that of human review in our laparoscopic training system. Machine learning may help fill an educational gap in LMICs where direct apprenticeship may not be feasible.

Evidence supporting performance measures of laparoscopic appendectomy through a novel surgical proficiency assessment tool and low-cost laparoscopic training system.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic training remains inaccessible for surgeons in low- and middle-income countries, limiting its widespread adoption. We developed a novel tool for assessment of laparoscopic appendectomy skills through ALL-SAFE, a low-cost laparoscopy training system. METHODS: This pilot study in Ethiopia, Cameroon, and the USA assessed appendectomy skills using the ALL-SAFE training system. Performance measures were captured using the ALL-SAFE verification of proficiency tool (APPY-VOP), consisting of a checklist, modified Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (m-OSATS), and final rating. Twenty participants, including novice (n = 11), intermediate (n = 8), and expert (n = 1), completed an online module covering appendicitis management and psychomotor skills in laparoscopic appendectomy. After viewing an expert skills demonstration video, participants recorded their performance within ALL-SAFE. Using the APPY-VOP, participants rated their own and three peer videos. We used the Kruskal-Wallis test and a Many-Facet Rasch Model to evaluate (i) capacity of APPY-VOP to differentiate performance levels, (ii) correlation among three APPY-VOP components, and (iii) rating differences across groups. RESULTS: Checklist scores increased from novice (M = 21.02) to intermediate (M = 23.64) and expert (M = 28.25), with differentiation between experts and novices, P = 0.005. All five m-OSATS domains and global summed, total summed, and final rating discriminated across all performance levels (P < 0.001). APPY-VOP final ratings adequately discriminated Competent (M = 2.0), Borderline (N = 1.8), and Not Competent (M = 1.4) performances, Χ2 (2,85) = 32.3, P = 0.001. There was a positive correlation between ALL-SAFE checklist and m-OSATS summed scores, r(83) = 0.63, P < 0.001. Comparison of ratings suggested no differences across expertise levels (P = 0.69) or location (P = 0.66). CONCLUSION: APPY-VOP effectively discriminated between novice and expert performance in laparoscopic appendectomy skills in a simulated setting. Scoring alignment across raters suggests consistent evaluation, independent of expertise. These results support the use of APPY-VOP among all skill levels inside a peer rating system. Future studies will focus on correlating proficiency to clinical practice and scaling ALL-SAFE to other settings.

Modulation of beta bursts in subthalamic sensorimotor circuits predicts improvement in bradykinesia.

No biomarker of Parkinson's disease exists that allows clinicians to adjust chronic therapy, either medication or deep brain stimulation, with real-time feedback. Consequently, clinicians rely on time-intensive, empirical, and subjective clinical assessments of motor behaviour and adverse events to adjust therapies. Accumulating evidence suggests that hypokinetic aspects of Parkinson's disease and their improvement with therapy are related to pathological neural activity in the beta band (beta oscillopathy) in the subthalamic nucleus. Additionally, effectiveness of deep brain stimulation may depend on modulation of the dorsolateral sensorimotor region of the subthalamic nucleus, which is the primary site of this beta oscillopathy. Despite the feasibility of utilizing this information to provide integrated, biomarker-driven precise deep brain stimulation, these measures have not been brought together in awake freely moving individuals. We sought to directly test whether stimulation-related improvements in bradykinesia were contingent on reduction of beta power and burst durations, and/or the volume of the sensorimotor subthalamic nucleus that was modulated. We recorded synchronized local field potentials and kinematic data in 16 subthalamic nuclei of individuals with Parkinson's disease chronically implanted with neurostimulators during a repetitive wrist-flexion extension task, while administering randomized different intensities of high frequency stimulation. Increased intensities of deep brain stimulation improved movement velocity and were associated with an intensity-dependent reduction in beta power and mean burst duration, measured during movement. The degree of reduction in this beta oscillopathy was associated with the improvement in movement velocity. Moreover, the reduction in beta power and beta burst durations was dependent on the theoretical degree of tissue modulated in the sensorimotor region of the subthalamic nucleus. Finally, the degree of attenuation of both beta power and beta burst durations, together with the degree of overlap of stimulation with the sensorimotor subthalamic nucleus significantly explained the stimulation-related improvement in movement velocity. The above results provide direct evidence that subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation-related improvements in bradykinesia are related to the reduction in beta oscillopathy within the sensorimotor region. With the advent of sensing neurostimulators, this beta oscillopathy combined with lead location could be used as a marker for real-time feedback to adjust clinical settings or to drive closed-loop deep brain stimulation in freely moving individuals with Parkinson's disease.

Safety of Plasma Infusions in Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Young plasma infusions have emerged as a potential treatment for neurodegenerative disease, and convalescent plasma therapy has been used safely in the management of viral pandemics. However, the effect of plasma therapy in Parkinson's disease (PD) is unknown. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to determine the safety, tolerability, and feasibility of plasma infusions in people with PD. METHODS: A total of 15 people with clinically established PD, at least 1 cognitive complaint, and on stable therapy received 1 unit of young fresh frozen plasma twice a week for 4 weeks. Assessments and adverse effects were performed/reported on and off therapy at baseline, immediately after, and 4 weeks after the infusions ended. Adverse effects were also assessed during infusions. The primary outcomes were safety, tolerability, and feasibility. Exploratory outcomes included Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale Part III off medication, neuropsychological battery, Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire-39, inflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6), uric acid, and quantitative kinematics. RESULTS: Adherence rate was 100% with no serious adverse effects. There was evidence of improvement in phonemic fluency (P = 0.002) and in the Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire-39 stigma subscore (P = 0.013) that were maintained at the delayed evaluation. Elevated baseline tumor necrosis factor-α levels decreased 4 weeks after the infusions ended. CONCLUSIONS: Young fresh frozen plasma was safe, feasible, and well tolerated in people with PD, without serious adverse effects and with preliminary evidence for improvements in phonemic fluency and stigma. The results of this study warrant further therapeutic investigations in PD and provide safety and feasibility data for plasma therapy in people with PD who may be at higher risk for severe complications of COVID-19. © 2020 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

The turning and barrier course reveals gait parameters for detecting freezing of gait and measuring the efficacy of deep brain stimulation.

Freezing of gait (FOG) is a devastating motor symptom of Parkinson's disease that leads to falls, reduced mobility, and decreased quality of life. Reliably eliciting FOG has been difficult in the clinical setting, which has limited discovery of pathophysiology and/or documentation of the efficacy of treatments, such as different frequencies of subthalamic deep brain stimulation (STN DBS). In this study we validated an instrumented gait task, the turning and barrier course (TBC), with the international standard FOG questionnaire question 3 (FOG-Q3, r = 0.74, p < 0.001). The TBC is easily assembled and mimics real-life environments that elicit FOG. People with Parkinson's disease who experience FOG (freezers) spent more time freezing during the TBC compared to during forward walking (p = 0.007). Freezers also exhibited greater arrhythmicity during non-freezing gait when performing the TBC compared to forward walking (p = 0.006); this difference in gait arrhythmicity between tasks was not detected in non-freezers or controls. Freezers' non-freezing gait was more arrhythmic than that of non-freezers or controls during all walking tasks (p < 0.05). A logistic regression model determined that a combination of gait arrhythmicity, stride time, shank angular range, and asymmetry had the greatest probability of classifying a step as FOG (area under receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.754). Freezers' percent time freezing and non-freezing gait arrhythmicity decreased, and their shank angular velocity increased in the TBC during both 60 Hz and 140 Hz STN DBS (p < 0.05) to non-freezer values. The TBC is a standardized tool for eliciting FOG and demonstrating the efficacy of 60 Hz and 140 Hz STN DBS for gait impairment and FOG. The TBC revealed gait parameters that differentiated freezers from non-freezers and best predicted FOG; these may serve as relevant control variables for closed loop neurostimulation for FOG in Parkinson's disease.

Neuromodulation targets pathological not physiological beta bursts during gait in Parkinson's disease.

Freezing of gait (FOG) is a devastating axial motor symptom in Parkinson's disease (PD) leading to falls, institutionalization, and even death. The response of FOG to dopaminergic medication and deep brain stimulation (DBS) is complex, variable, and yet to be optimized. Fundamental gaps in the knowledge of the underlying neurobiomechanical mechanisms of FOG render this symptom one of the unsolved challenges in the treatment of PD. Subcortical neural mechanisms of gait impairment and FOG in PD are largely unknown due to the challenge of accessing deep brain circuitry and measuring neural signals in real time in freely-moving subjects. Additionally, there is a lack of gait tasks that reliably elicit FOG. Since FOG is episodic, we hypothesized that dynamic features of subthalamic (STN) beta oscillations, or beta bursts, may contribute to the Freezer phenotype in PD during gait tasks that elicit FOG. We also investigated whether STN DBS at 60 Hz or 140 Hz affected beta burst dynamics and gait impairment differently in Freezers and Non-Freezers. Synchronized STN local field potentials, from an implanted, sensing neurostimulator (Activa® PC + S, Medtronic, Inc.), and gait kinematics were recorded in 12 PD subjects, off-medication during forward walking and stepping-in-place tasks under the following randomly presented conditions: NO, 60 Hz, and 140 Hz DBS. Prolonged movement band beta burst durations differentiated Freezers from Non-Freezers, were a pathological neural feature of FOG and were shortened during DBS which improved gait. Normal gait parameters, accompanied by shorter bursts in Non-Freezers, were unchanged during DBS. The difference between the mean burst duration between hemispheres (STNs) of all individuals strongly correlated with the difference in stride time between their legs but there was no correlation between mean burst duration of each STN and stride time of the contralateral leg, suggesting an interaction between hemispheres influences gait. These results suggest that prolonged STN beta burst durations measured during gait is an important biomarker for FOG and that STN DBS modulated long not short burst durations, thereby acting to restore physiological sensorimotor information processing, while improving gait.

Subthalamic neural entropy is a feature of freezing of gait in freely moving people with Parkinson's disease.

The goal of this study was to investigate subthalamic (STN) neural features of Freezers and Non-Freezers with Parkinson's disease (PD), while freely walking without freezing of gait (FOG) and during periods of FOG, which were better elicited during a novel turning and barrier gait task than during forward walking. METHODS: Synchronous STN local field potentials (LFPs), shank angular velocities, and ground reaction forces were measured in fourteen PD subjects (eight Freezers) off medication, OFF deep brain stimulation (DBS), using an investigative, implanted, sensing neurostimulator (Activa® PC+S, Medtronic, Inc.). Tasks included standing still, instrumented forward walking, stepping in place on dual forceplates, and instrumented walking through a turning and barrier course. RESULTS: During locomotion without FOG, Freezers showed lower beta (13-30Hz) power (P=0.036) and greater beta Sample Entropy (P=0.032), than Non-Freezers, as well as greater gait asymmetry and arrhythmicity (P<0.05 for both). No differences in alpha/beta power and/or entropy were evident at rest. During periods of FOG, Freezers showed greater alpha (8-12Hz) Sample Entropy (P<0.001) than during walking without FOG. CONCLUSIONS: A novel turning and barrier course was superior to FW in eliciting FOG. Greater unpredictability in subthalamic beta rhythms was evident during stepping without freezing episodes in Freezers compared to Non-Freezers, whereas greater unpredictability in alpha rhythms was evident in Freezers during FOG. Non-linear analysis of dynamic neural signals during gait in freely moving people with PD may yield greater insight into the pathophysiology of FOG; whether the increases in STN entropy are causative or compensatory remains to be determined. Some beta LFP power may be useful for rhythmic, symmetric gait and DBS parameters, which completely attenuate STN beta power may worsen rather than improve FOG.

Correction: Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor Derived from CD4+ T Cells Contributes to Control of a Blood-Borne Infection.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006046.].

Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor Derived from CD4+ T Cells Contributes to Control of a Blood-Borne Infection.

Dynamic regulation of leukocyte population size and activation state is crucial for an effective immune response. In malaria, Plasmodium parasites elicit robust host expansion of macrophages and monocytes, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here we show that myeloid expansion during P. chabaudi infection is dependent upon both CD4+ T cells and the cytokine Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (MCSF). Single-cell RNA-Seq analysis on antigen-experienced T cells revealed robust expression of Csf1, the gene encoding MCSF, in a sub-population of CD4+ T cells with distinct transcriptional and surface phenotypes. Selective deletion of Csf1 in CD4+ cells during P. chabaudi infection diminished proliferation and activation of certain myeloid subsets, most notably lymph node-resident CD169+ macrophages, and resulted in increased parasite burden and impaired recovery of infected mice. Depletion of CD169+ macrophages during infection also led to increased parasitemia and significant host mortality, confirming a previously unappreciated role for these cells in control of P. chabaudi. This work establishes the CD4+ T cell as a physiologically relevant source of MCSF in vivo; probes the complexity of the CD4+ T cell response during type 1 infection; and delineates a novel mechanism by which T helper cells regulate myeloid cells to limit growth of a blood-borne intracellular pathogen.

A Novel Model of Asymptomatic Plasmodium Parasitemia That Recapitulates Elements of the Human Immune Response to Chronic Infection.

In humans, immunity to Plasmodium sp. generally takes the form of protection from symptomatic malaria (i.e., 'clinical immunity') rather than infection ('sterilizing immunity'). In contrast, mice infected with Plasmodium develop sterilizing immunity, hindering progress in understanding the mechanistic basis of clinical immunity. Here we present a novel model in which mice persistently infected with P. chabaudi exhibit limited clinical symptoms despite sustaining patent parasite burdens for many months. Characterization of immune responses in persistently infected mice revealed development of CD4+ T cell exhaustion, increased production of IL-10, and expansion of B cells with an atypical surface phenotype. Additionally, persistently infected mice displayed a dramatic increase in circulating nonclassical monocytes, a phenomenon that we also observed in humans with both chronic Plasmodium exposure and asymptomatic infection. Following pharmacological clearance of infection, previously persistently infected mice could not control a secondary challenge, indicating that persistent infection disrupts the sterilizing immunity that typically develops in mouse models of acute infection. This study establishes an animal model of asymptomatic, persistent Plasmodium infection that recapitulates several central aspects of the immune response in chronically exposed humans. As such, it provides a novel tool for dissection of immune responses that may prevent development of sterilizing immunity and limit pathology during infection.