Managing complex emergencies.

Complex emergencies, also known as major humanitarian emergencies, differ from emergencies related to natural disasters or major disease outbreaks, in that they are essentially political in nature and will, in most cases, erode the cultural, civil, political and economic stability of societies. They can be exacerbated by natural disasters and eventually require external interventions. National Veterinary Services are usually weakened or partially or totally disrupted. Interventions to support livestock-dependent communities should build on local capacity. Multisector, integrated disaster management plans should be in place and should include not only preparedness and response, but also mitigation, prevention and recovery strategies. National Veterinary Services and their partners should work in close collaboration and are encouraged to look beyond animal-health-related interventions, also addressing access to feed and water, and keeping marketing chains for livestock open. This paper also touches on the specific needs of displaced people, host communities, and pastoralists, as well as addressing disease eradication programmes in the context of complex emergencies.

Les situations d'urgence complexes (également appelées «urgences humanitaires majeures ¼) se distinguent des situations d'urgence dues à des catastrophes naturelles ou à des foyers majeurs de maladie par leur nature essentiellement politique et par le fait qu'elles nuisent généralement à la stabilité culturelle, civile, politique et économique des sociétés affectées. Elles sont parfois exacerbées par des catastrophes naturelles et peuvent nécessiter à terme une intervention extérieure. Les Services vétérinaires nationaux sont généralement affaiblis, voire partiellement ou totalement suspendus. Les interventions visant à soutenir les communautés qui vivent de l'élevage doivent s'appuyer sur les capacités locales. Il convient d'avoir établi des plans de gestion des catastrophes multisectoriels et intégrés comportant des stratégies non seulement de préparation et d'intervention mais aussi d'atténuation, de prévention et de rétablissement. Il est recommandé aux Services vétérinaires nationaux et à leurs partenaires de travailler en étroite collaboration et d'avoir une vision allant au-delà des interventions strictement liées à la santé animale afin de traiter également le problème de l'accès des animaux aux aliments et à l'eau et de faire en sorte que les filières de commercialisation du bétail demeurent ouvertes. Outre la problématique des programmes d'éradication des maladies dans le contexte des situations d'urgence complexes, les auteurs abordent également les besoins spécifiques des personnes déplacées, des communautés d'accueil et des populations pastorales.

Las emergencias complejas, también denominadas «grandes emergencias humanitarias¼, difieren de las emergencias causadas por desastres naturales o grandes brotes infecciosos en que son de carácter eminentemente político y en que casi siempre acaban erosionando la estabilidad cultural, civil, política y económica de la sociedad afectada. A veces se ven agravadas por desastres naturales y a la postre requieren intervenciones externas. Los Servicios Veterinarios nacionales suelen verse fragilizados o parcial o completamente desarticulados. Toda intervención de apoyo a poblaciones dependientes del ganado debería partir de los medios de acción existentes a escala local. Es preciso tener instituidos planes integrados y multisectoriales de gestión de desastres, que incluyan no solo mecanismos de preparación y respuesta, sino también dispositivos de mitigación, prevención y recuperación. Los Servicios Veterinarios nacionales y sus asociados deben trabajar en estrecha colaboración. A todos ellos se los alienta a que, lejos de limitarse a las intervenciones de salud animal, se ocupen también del acceso a los piensos y el agua y de mantener abiertos los circuitos de comercialización de ganado. Los autores abordan también aquí las necesidades específicas de las personas desplazadas, las comunidades de acogida y las poblaciones pastorales, así como los programas de erradicación de enfermedades en el contexto de emergencias complejas.

Detection of A/H5N1 virus from asymptomatic native ducks in mid-summer in Egypt.

In spite of all the efforts to control H5N1 in Egypt, the virus still circulates endemically, causing significant economic losses in the poultry industry and endangering human health. This study aimed to elucidate the role of clinically healthy ducks in perpetuation of H5N1 virus in Egypt in mid-summer, when the disease prevalence is at its lowest level. A total of 927 cloacal swabs collected from 111 household and 71 commercial asymptomatic duck flocks were screened by using a real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Only five scavenging ducks from a native breed in three flocks were found infected with H5N1 virus. This study indicates that H5N1 virus can persist in free-range ducks in hot weather, in contrast to their counterparts confined in household or commercial settings. Surveillance to identify other potential reservoirs is essential.

Assessment of biosecurity practices of small-scale broiler producers in central Egypt.

In the current situation of endemicity of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in Egypt, improving the biosecurity of poultry production has become essential to the progressive reduction the incidence of the disease. A significant proportion of the Egyptian commercial poultry system consists of small-scale poultry producers operating with low to minimal biosecurity measures. An investigation was conducted into the level of adoption of standard biosecurity measures of the small-scale commercial chicken growers, including both farm- and home-based commercial production, input suppliers and other actors along the meat chicken value chain in Fayoum, Egypt. The study which used direct observations and group discussions of nearly 160 participants and structured interviews with 463 respondents, assessed biosecurity implementation to improve management practices and ultimately to control and prevent highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). The survey found that overall, biosecurity measures are rarely implemented in small-scale commercial poultry production units. Compliance with recommended biosecurity practices did not greatly vary from home-based to farm-based commercial production. Furthermore, serious risk practices were identified, such as unsafe disposal of poultry carcasses and potential disease spread posed by poor biosecurity measures implemented during vaccination. HPAI control measures have been ineffective due to limited cooperation between public and private sector, aggravated by the unpopular measures taken in the event of outbreaks and no compensation paid for incurred losses. Outreach and biosecurity awareness raising initiatives should be specifically developed for small-scale producers with the objective of improving general poultry management and thus preventing HPAI and other poultry diseases.

The cost-benefit of biosecurity measures on infectious diseases in the Egyptian household poultry.

Increased animal intensification presents with increasing risks of animal diseases. The Egyptian household poultry is peculiar in its management style and housing and this present with particular challenges of risk of infection to both the flock and humans. Biosecurity remains one of the most important means of reducing risks of infection in the household poultry, however not much information is available to support its feasibility at the household level of production. In this study financial feasibilities of biosecurity were modeled and evaluated based on certain production parameters. Risks of particular importance to the household poultry were categorized and highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 was the most risky disease while people-related risk was the most important risk category. It was observed that basic biosecurity measures were applicable in the household poultry and it would be 8.45 times better to implement biosecurity than to do nothing against HPAI H5N1; 4.88 times better against Newcastle disease and 1.49 times better against coccidiosis. Sensitivity analyses proved that the household poultry project was robust and would withstand various uncertainties. An uptake pathway for basic biosecurity was suggested. The outcome of this work should support decisions to implement biosecurity at the household sector of poultry production.

Effect of strategic gastrointestinal nematode control on faecal egg count in traditional West African cattle.

This paper reports on the effect of strategic anthelmintic treatments and other determinants on faecal egg counts (FEC) of Trichostrongyles in N'Dama cattle of a west African village. Initially, 527 animals from 13 private N'Dama cattle herds were monitored in a longitudinal study from October 1989 to December 1994. Each herd was stratified by age and animals were sequentially allocated to two groups with similar age distributions. One group received a single anthelmintic treatment of fenbendazole (7.5 mg/kg BW), in October 1989 (n = 250), whereas the other group remained untreated (n = 277) throughout the study. In the next rainy season (June to October), the treated animals were treated twice (in July and September). The same treatment schedule was used in the subsequent rainy seasons until December 1994. Biannual anthelmintic treatments decreased the level of FEC between 31% (late dry season) and 57% (rainy season), when compared to untreated controls. The highest levels of FEC were found during the rainy season from June to October. FEC levels decreased until 4 years of age, after which they remained on a constant low level. The variability of returns to anthelmintic treatments between herds did not seem to be influenced by FEC at the herd level. The financial evaluation of anthelmintic interventions cannot be predicted from FEC and must necessarily rely on the direct monitoring of livestock productivity parameters.

Heritability of gastrointestinal nematode faecal egg counts in West African village N'Dama cattle and its relation to age.

Offspring-dam regression was used to estimate the heritability of strongyle faecal egg counts (FEC) of traditionally raised West African N'Dama cattle in the Central River Division in The Gambia. Faecal samples were taken monthly from June-October 1992, and again from July-October 1993, including 179-463 dams and their calves sampled on each occasion. The only proven genetic relationship was the dam-offspring relationship. Gastrointestinal strongyle FEC was expressed as epg (eggs per gram faeces). Regression of offspring FEC on dam FEC, showed a heritability (h(2)) of 0.18 (95% Confidence Limits 0.10, 0.25). Heritabilities were higher at the beginning and end of the rainy season than during the months of the peak rainy season. This is in line with earlier suggestions that genetic control of faecal egg counts is most effective during periods of low parasite transmission. There was a significant (p<0.001) increase in heritability of 0.086+/-0.018 with each year of age of the corresponding offspring. In view of the virtual absence of national cattle breeding systems in West Africa, which are a precondition for exploitation of heritable traits in cattle, integrated control using improved management and strategic prophylaxis remain the methods of choice to control gastrointestinal nematodes in the given conditions.

[Swiss veterinary research and development project in the Gambia: the point of view of the breeder concerning control of helminthiasis in livestock]. / Projet suisse de recherche-développement vétérinaire en Gambie: le point de vue de l'éleveur sur la lutte contre les helminthoses chez le bétail.

The epidemiology of nematodes in livestock in The Gambia was assessed. A prophylactic biannual treatment was then tested on cattle and sheep. This treatment resulted in a significant improvement in the reproductive performances (sheep: lambings/year increasing from 1.04 to 1.22 and lambs/lambing increasing from 1.11 to 1.19; cattle: age at first calving decreasing from 58 to 50 months) and, in cattle, a significant improvement of the weight (varying between 8% and 17% in 1 to 4 year old animals). A socioeconomic study conducted in parallel showed that the treatment in cattle is on average profitable (benefit/cost ratio of 1.14) but remains a risky investment which should not be generalised (benefit/cost ratio would have been below 1 in more than half of the participating herds). In sheep, the benefit/cost ratio is high (2.47) with a low risk of losses (< 10%). The obstacles to the adoption by farmers of such a treatment and the usefulness of a pluridisciplinary approach in similar studies are then discussed.

Biannual anthelmintic treatments in village Djallonke sheep in The Gambia: effects on productivity and profitability.

An on-farm deworming trial was conducted between 1991 and 1995 on traditionally managed Djallonke sheep in The Gambia to assess the impact on productivity and profitability of prophylactic biannual anthelmintic treatments- Fifteen private flocks with an average of 25 animals per flock participated in the experiment. Half of each flock was dewormed twice a year while the other half served as the control group. The two productivity traits that were significantly improved by the treatment scheme tested were the number of lambs per lambing which increased from 1.11 +/- 0.31 (Mean +/- S.D.) to 1.19 +/- 0.39 and the number of lambings per year which improved from 1.04 +/- 0.53 to 1.22 +/- 0.47. The mortality and weight at 12 months were not significantly affected by the treatment. Monitoring of sheep sales in the flocks and on surrounding markets allowed the calculation of a rate of return to the treatment scheme tested of 246%. Despite large variations in returns. The scheme studied is recommended as over 90% of the adopting farmers would yield positive returns to their investment.

Multiparasitism, Production and Economics in Domestic Animals in sub-Saharan West Africa.

Over the past ten years, an informal West African animal helminthosis network has developed (), with the aims of both improving livestock productivity through parasite control and, ultimately, increasing rural income. The network places a strong emphasis on building up local research capacity through scientific partnership. This article highlights recent findings from projects of the network.

Effect of strategic gastrointestinal nematode control on growth of N'Dama cattle in Gambia.

From October 1989 to December 1994, a longitudinal study on the control of gastrointestinal nematodes was done on 1000 N'Dama cattle in 20 private herds in Gambia. Each herd was divided into two groups with an even distribution of age and sex. One group received a single anthelmintic treatment of Fenbendazole, Panacur Hoechst Veterinär GmbH, 7.5 mg kg-1 BW in October 1989, whereas the other group served as an untreated control. In July 1990, the herds were subdivided into two different treatment schemes. In the herds of the first scheme the treated animals (Treatment group I) were treated once (in August), whereas in the herds of the second scheme the treated animals (Treatment group II) were treated twice (in July and September). The same treatment schedule was used in the subsequent rainy seasons until December 1994. One group in every herd served as control (Treatment group 0) and received no anthelmintic treatment throughout the study. One annual fenbendazole treatment had no significant effect on liveweights, whereas two annual treatments significantly increased liveweights of the age group 12-24 and 24-36 months by 9.4%, and 17.5%, respectively. Animals less than 12 months old had 6.3% higher liveweights after two treatments, the difference was statistically not significant (P < 0.06). Average weights of 3- and 4-year-old, twice-treated animals were 13.1% and 8.2%, respectively, higher compared with their controls. No effect of anthelminthic treatment on liveweights was found in 5-year-old and older animals. Herd structure analysis demonstrated that overall male offtake rates ranged from 12 to 28% in the 3-, 4- and 5-year-old age categories. The age categories within which deworming improves liveweights thus coincides with the age at which males are mainly sold. These results suggest that biannual metaphylactic treatments (end of July and beginning of September) of all animals from birth to an age of 4 years should be recommended, provided that the financial analysis demonstrates the profitability of this intervention.

Effect of strategic gastrointestinal nematode control on fertility and mortality of N'Dama cattle in The Gambia.

A large-scale longitudinal study was undertaken to investigate the effects of a strategic treatment of gastrointestinal nematodes on the mortality and fertility of N'Dama cattle under village conditions. Initially, 1046 animals from 26 private N'Dama cattle herds, were monitored from October 1989 to December 1994. Each herd was stratified by age and the animals were randomly allocated to two groups with a similar average age. One group received a single anthelmintic treatment of fenbendazole (Panacur, 7.5 mg/kg BW, Hoechst Veterinä AG) in October 1989, whereas the other group remained untreated. In July 1990, the herds were subdivided into two different treatment schemes. In the herds of scheme 1, the treated animals (Treatment group I) were treated once (in August), whereas in the herds of scheme 2, the treated animals (Treatment group II) were treated twice (in July and September). The same treatment schedule was used in the subsequent rainy seasons until December 1994. One group in every herd of both schemes served as control (Treatment group 0) and received no anthelmintic treatment throughout the study. The average annual cumulative incidence mortality between 0-1 year was more than two times higher in treated animals compared to their controls (21% against 7.5%). No differences were found in older age categories. Survival analysis confirmed differences in mortality from 0-1 year, but were not significant in proportional hazard models. The 25% quantiles of age at first calving was used to quantify differences between twice treated animals (50.2 months) and its controls (58.3 months) which represents a decrease of 8 months in twice treated animals. Annual calving rates of twice treated animals were 52.2% compared to 43.6% in the control group (P < 0.001), which is an increase of 8.6% to the control rate. Possible causes of increased mortality in 0-1 year old treated calves are discussed. We can conclude that in the present epidemiological situation and the given parasite spectrum, gastro-intestinal nematodes mainly affect host fertility. Strategic control of gastro-intestinal nematodes is thus recommended for young heifers up to their age of first calving provided the overall financial analysis of the intervention is beneficial.

Returns from strategic anthelmintic treatments in village cattle in the Gambia.

A large-scale study was undertaken to investigate the effects of two systematic anthelmintic treatments on village cattle productivity in the Gambia. Treated animals had significantly higher performance in terms of live weights and age at first calving, but the mortality rate of 0- to 1-yr-old cattle appeared to be negatively affected. These results and financial data on treatment costs were used in a herd simulation model to assess the profitability of the intervention. Treatment was profitable on average, but the risks of losing money were large and average returns were sensitive to various hypotheses examined. The treatment regimen studied can only be recommended in certain herds and further research is needed to identify the factors determining the negative response in other herds.

[Epidemiology of gastrointestinal nematodes in small ruminants in the plateau areas in Togo]. / Epidémiologie des nématodes gastro-intestinaux chez les petits ruminants dans la région des plateaux au Togo.

Post-mortem helminthological examinations were performed in Togo on small ruminants of the Djallonké breed (59 sheep, 60 goats), revealing the presence of eight gastrointestinal nematode species which were, in decreasing prevalence order, Trichostrongylus sp. (T. axei and T. colubriformis) (99%), Haemonchus contortus (82%), Strongyloides papillosus (67%), Cooperia curticei (43%), Oesophagostomum columbianum (40%), Gaigeria pachyscelis (36%) and Trichuris ovis (4%). The average worm burden was 1,367 +/- 146 in sheep and 1,133 +/- 102 in goats with an adult worm population peak in August-September (sheep: 2,135 +/- 494, goats: 2,066 +/- 270). During the dry season, Haemonchus contortus and Oesophagostomum columbianum populations were mainly in larval hypobiosis (L4). The number of eggs per gram faeces was usually high (> 3,000) and neither the species nor the age of the host (6 months to 3 years) played a significant role in helminth abundance.

[Quasi-absence of trichostrongylid reinfection in Gambian livestock during the dry season]. / Quasi-absence de réinfestation par les strongles du bétail gambien en saison sèche.

Five Ndama bulls aged between 1.5 and 2 years and 20 Djallonke rams aged between 6 to 18 months were dewormed as follows: the bulls were dewormed in November (beginning of the dry season), the sheep were divided into four groups dewormed in November, January, March and May respectively. The animals were kept on naturally infected pastures prior to and throughout the experiment. Gastrointestinal nematode egg excretion was measured weekly after starting the treatment. Egg excretion stayed practically nil for all animals except for the series of sheep treated in May which started excreting eggs on month after the first rain. The bulls were slaughtered in June and the sheep were slaughtered nine weeks after they had been initially dewormed. A complete parasitological post mortem examination confirmed the absence of any pathologically consequent reinfection by gastro-intestinal nematodes of Gambian cattle during the dry season. This confirms the strategic importance of the application of a dewormer also efficient against immature trichostrongylids at the beginning of the dry season and renders complementary deworming between November and May superfluous.