Estimates of use of preferred contraceptive method in the United States: a population-based study.

Background: In the U.S. and globally, dominant metrics of contraceptive access focus on the use of certain contraceptive methods and do not address self-defined need for contraception; therefore, these metrics fail to attend to person-centeredness, a key component of healthcare quality. This study addresses this gap by presenting new data from the U.S. on preferred contraceptive method use, a person-centered contraceptive access indicator. Additionally, we examine the association between key aspects of person-centered healthcare access and preferred contraceptive method use. Methods: We fielded a nationally representative survey in the U.S. in English and Spanish in 2022, surveying non-sterile 15-44-year-olds assigned female sex at birth. Among current and prospective contraceptive users (unweighted n = 2119), we describe preferred method use, reasons for non-use, and differences in preferred method use by sociodemographic characteristics. We conduct logistic regression analyses examining the association between four aspects of person-centered healthcare access and preferred contraceptive method use. Findings: A quarter (25.2%) of current and prospective users reported there was another method they would like to use, with oral contraception and vasectomy most selected. Reasons for non-use of preferred contraception included side effects (28.8%), sex-related reasons (25.1%), logistics/knowledge barriers (18.6%), safety concerns (18.3%), and cost (17.6%). In adjusted logistic regression analyses, respondents who felt they had enough information to choose appropriate contraception (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] 3.31; 95% CI 2.10, 5.21), were very (AOR 9.24; 95% CI 4.29, 19.91) or somewhat confident (AOR 3.78; 95% CI 1.76, 8.12) they could obtain desired contraception, had received person-centered contraceptive counseling (AOR 1.72; 95% CI 1.33, 2.23), and had not experienced discrimination in family planning settings (AOR 1.58; 95% CI 1.13, 2.20) had increased odds of preferred contraceptive method use. Interpretation: An estimated 8.1 million individuals in the U.S. are not using a preferred contraceptive method. Interventions should focus on holistic, person-centered contraceptive access, given the implications of information, self-efficacy, and discriminatory care for preferred method use. Funding: Arnold Ventures.

Supporting Birthing People and Supporting Doulas: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on a Community-Based Doula Organization in San Francisco.

Background: Beginning in March 2020, health care systems in the United States restricted the number of support people who could be present during pregnancy-related care to reduce the spread of COVID-19. We aimed to describe how SisterWeb, a community-based doula organization that employs Black, Pacific Islander, and Latinx doulas in San Francisco, California, adapted to the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: As part of process and outcome evaluations conducted through an academic-community partnership, we interviewed SisterWeb doulas, mentors, and leaders in 2020, 2021, and 2022 (n=26 interviews). We identified preliminary themes using the Rapid Assessment Process and then conducted thematic analysis of data related to COVID-19. Results: SisterWeb leadership remained committed to safeguarding doulas by shifting to virtual support until doulas were onboarded as benefitted employees. Doulas reported hospital policies impacted clients' pregnancy-related care. Initially, doulas adapted to virtual support by connecting with clients more frequently through phone and text. When permitted to meet in person, doulas adjusted to client preference. Finally, as the pandemic impacted doulas' well-being, they turned to mentors for emotional support. Discussion and Health Equity Implications: This analysis contributes to a growing body of literature describing doulas' experiences during the pandemic. By shifting to virtual support, SisterWeb leaders prioritized the health, safety, and financial stability of doulas, who were members of communities disproportionately impacted by COVID-19. Our findings suggest that public health guidance, organizational COVID-19 precautions, and hospital policies hindered SisterWeb's goal of ensuring clients receive equitable medical care. In addition, we found that emotional support for doulas is vital to their work.

What, when, and how long? Doula time use in a community doula program in San Francisco, California.

OBJECTIVES: Community doulas, who provide culturally concordant, nonclinical support during and after pregnancy, are increasingly promoted as an evidence-based intervention to advance birth equity. As valued members of their communities, community doulas often provide extensive physical and emotional pregnancy, birth, and postpartum support at low or no cost to clients. However, neither community doulas' scope of work nor the distribution of time among their different work activities has been clearly defined or enumerated; therefore, this project sought to describe the work activities and time use of doulas in one community-based doula organization. METHODS: In a quality improvement project, we reviewed case management system client data and collected 1 month of time diary data from eight doulas employed full-time at SisterWeb San Francisco Community Doula Network. We calculated descriptive statistics for activities community doulas reported in their time diaries and each visit/interaction logged in the case management system. RESULTS: SisterWeb doulas spent about half of their time in direct client care. For every hour that doulas spent with a client in prenatal and postpartum visits, on average, they spent an additional 2.15 h communicating with and supporting their clients in other ways. Overall, we estimate that SisterWeb doulas spend an average of 32 h providing care for a client receiving the standard course of care, including intake, prenatal visits, support during childbirth, and postpartum visits. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the wide variety of work that SisterWeb community doulas do beyond direct client care. Acknowledgment of community doulas' broad scope of work and appropriate compensation for all activities is necessary if doula care is to be advanced as a health equity intervention.

"They're gonna be there to advocate for me so I'm not by myself": A qualitative analysis of Black women's motivations for seeking and experiences with community doula care.

PROBLEM: In the United States, Black women are disproportionately impacted by inequities in maternal health. BACKGROUND: Community doula support may improve birth outcomes and experiences, including lower rates of preterm birth and low birthweight and increases in positive birthing experiences. Few studies have explored client experiences with doula care, specifically community doula care. AIM: To explore Black doula clients' motivations for seeking and experiences with community doula care. METHODS: Data are from a mixed methods process evaluation of an organization providing free community doula services in San Francisco, California. We conducted two rounds of qualitative interviews with doula clients who identified as Black or Pacific Islander between August 2019 and March 2020. Interviews explored clients' knowledge of, experiences with, and motivations for seeking doula care and their perceptions of the services they received. We utilized a Rapid Assessment Process to synthesize findings and thematic analysis. FINDINGS: Clients' motivations for seeking doula care included general lack of support and knowledge of mistreatment experienced by Black women in hospital settings. Doulas provided support in the form of information about the perinatal period and clients' rights, advocacy in hospital settings, and connection to resources beyond pregnancy and birth. Some clients described doulas as helping them stay focused and make decisions during difficult labor experiences and described positive birth experiences despite experiencing complications. CONCLUSION: Community doulas play an instrumental role in the birth experiences of Black women and birthing people. Efforts should be made to expand access to this needed support via policy and hospital practices.

Community perspectives on pharmacist-prescribed hormonal contraception in rural California.

OBJECTIVES: In the United States, numerous states have enabled pharmacists to prescribe hormonal contraception. Little research focuses on the perspectives of potential users of this service in rural communities. This study sought to describe awareness of, interest in, acceptability of, and support for pharmacist-prescribed contraception in a rural California county. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a community-based survey in 2019-20 in Tulare County, California. Researchers partnered with community members to design, implement, and analyze the survey. We recruited respondents who were ages 15 to 44 and assigned female sex at birth, using passive community-based approaches, social media advertisements, and social networks. Analyses focused on 177 respondents with a potential future need for contraception. RESULTS: Thirty-one percent of respondents were aware that pharmacists could prescribe hormonal contraception in California, with more accurate knowledge among older respondents (p = 0.015). After receiving brief educational information about pharmacist-prescribed contraception, respondents expressed high levels of support and acceptability: they perceived pharmacist-prescribed contraception to be safe, time saving, and more convenient. Respondents were more comfortable talking about contraception with traditional contraceptive care providers compared to asking pharmacists questions about contraception. Fifty-seven percent were somewhat or very interested in obtaining contraception from a pharmacist, with higher levels of interest among those who preferred to use a different method. CONCLUSION: Awareness of pharmacist-prescribed contraception in a rural California community was low, though people are supportive of and interested in utilizing this service. This research suggests that increased availability of pharmacist-prescribed contraception could support individuals' reproductive self-determination and address gaps in access. IMPLICATIONS: Despite limited awareness of pharmacist-prescribed contraception, interest in using and community support for this service was high in a rural California community. This analysis suggests that increased availability of pharmacist-prescribed contraception could support reproductive self-determination and address access barriers, particularly for people whose contraceptive needs are not currently being met.

Interpregnancy Interval and Birth Outcomes: A Propensity Matching Study in the California Population.

INTRODUCTION: Previous studies that used traditional multivariable and sibling matched analyses to investigate interpregnancy interval (IPI) and birth outcomes have reached mixed conclusions about a minimum recommended IPI, raising concerns about confounding. Our objective was to isolate the contribution of interpregnancy interval to the risk for adverse birth outcomes using propensity score matching. METHODS: For this retrospective cohort study, data were drawn from a California Department of Health Care Access and Information database with linked vital records and hospital discharge records (2007-2012). We compared short IPIs of < 6, 6-11, and 12-17 months to a referent IPI of 18-23 months using 1:1 exact propensity score matching on 13 maternal sociodemographic and clinical factors. We used logistic regression to calculate the odds of preterm birth, early-term birth, and small for gestational age (SGA). RESULTS: Of 144,733 women, 73.6% had IPIs < 18 months, 5.5% delivered preterm, 27.0% delivered early-term, and 6.0% had SGA infants. In the propensity matched sample (n = 83,788), odds of preterm birth were increased among women with IPI < 6 and 6-11 months (OR 1.89, 95% CI 1.71-2.0; OR 1.22, 95% CI 1.13-1.31, respectively) and not with IPI 12-17 months (OR 1.01, 95% CI 0.94-1.09); a similar pattern emerged for early-term birth. The odds of SGA were slightly elevated only for intervals < 6 months (OR 1.10, 95% CI 1.00-1.20, p < .05). DISCUSSION: This study demonstrates a dose response association between short IPI and adverse birth outcomes, with no increased risk beyond 12 months. Findings suggest that longer IPI recommendations may be overly proscriptive.

Desire, acceptability, and expected resolution: A latent class analysis of current pregnancy orientation in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Scant research has examined latent and contextual dimensions of pregnancy intentions, conventionally classifying unintended pregnancies as mistimed (wanted later) or unwanted (not wanted at all). Being at risk of mistimed pregnancy likely encompasses a broad spectrum of emotions and expectations regarding pregnancy and merits further exploration. METHOD: Using a national sample from GfK's online KnowledgePanel of women aged 15-39 considered at risk of mistimed pregnancy in 2017 (n = 1278), we conducted a latent class analysis to assess underlying patterns of current pregnancy orientation using three items: pregnancy desire, pregnancy acceptability, and expected pregnancy resolution. As class structure varied by relationship status (serious or not), we stratified analyses by relationship status. RESULTS: Among women in serious relationships, three classes emerged: "No," "Slightly okay," and "Acceptable." For those not in serious relationships, there were two classes: "Strong no" and "Ambiguous." Overall, the classes indicate varied patterns of wantedness, acceptability, and anticipated resolution to potential pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis reinforces that the construct of mistimed pregnancy is too restrictive to reflect the inherent diversity of prospective pregnancy orientation. The combination of relationship type as a grouping variable for stratified analyses, financial hardships' impact, and the overall effect of increasing age on increasing interest in pregnancy suggest the importance of locating pregnancy intentions within the broader reproductive life course. Scholars, clinicians, and public health programs should allow for multidimensionality of pregnancy perspectives, locate them within the broader life course, and acknowledge the potential impacts of stratified relationship formation on eventual pregnancy intentions.

Barriers and Facilitators to the Implementation of a Community Doula Program for Black and Pacific Islander Pregnant People in San Francisco: Findings from a Partnered Process Evaluation.

INTRODUCTION: Increasingly, community-based models of doula care are receiving attention as possible interventions to address racial inequities in maternal health care experiences and outcomes. In 2018, community-based organization SisterWeb launched to provide free culturally congruent community doula care to advance birth equity for Black and Pacific Islander pregnant people, with funding from the San Francisco Department of Public Health. We conducted a process evaluation of SisterWeb's first 1.5 years of existence to identify multilevel barriers and facilitators to implementation of their programs. METHODS: Guided by the Equitable Evaluation Framework™, we conducted 46 in-depth interviews with individuals from 5 groups: SisterWeb leadership, doulas, doula mentors, and clients, and external stakeholders. RESULTS: Barriers included having diverse clientele groups with unique needs, an ineffective payment model, and simultaneously building an organization and developing and implementing programs. Facilitators included the presence of established strategic partnerships, positive reception of services due to an unmet need for culturally and linguistically congruent pregnancy and birth support among SisterWeb's clients, a clear organizational vision and mission, and a unique doula cohort model. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest developing community doula programs pay close attention to the difference between launching a program versus an organization, including the required resources of each, the sustainability of payment models for community doulas, and the provision of culturally relevant, needed services within priority communities. Furthermore, strategic partnerships with maternal health stakeholders in birthing sites, particularly hospitals, are vital to the success of a community doula program.

"My 9 to 5 Job Is Birth Work": A Case Study of Two Compensation Approaches for Community Doula Care.

With the increased policy emphasis on promoting doula care to advance birth equity in the United States, there is a vital need to identify sustainable and equitable approaches for compensation of community doulas, who serve clients experiencing the greatest barriers to optimal pregnancy-related outcomes. This case study explores two different approaches for compensating doulas (contractor versus hourly employment with benefits) utilized by SisterWeb San Francisco Community Doula Network in San Francisco, California. We conducted qualitative interviews with SisterWeb doulas in 2020 and 2021 and organizational leaders in 2020. Overall, leaders and doulas reported that the contractor approach, in which doulas were paid a flat fee per client, did not adequately compensate doulas, who regularly attend trainings and provide additional support for their clients (e.g., referrals to promote housing and food security). Additionally, this approach did not provide doulas with healthcare benefits, which was especially concerning during the COVID-19 pandemic. As hourly, benefited employees, doulas experienced a greater sense of financial security and wellbeing from receiving consistent pay, compensation for all time worked, and benefits such as health insurance and sick leave, allowing some to dedicate themselves to birth work. Our study suggests that efforts to promote community doula care must integrate structural solutions to provide appropriate compensation and benefits to doulas, simultaneously advancing birth equity and equitable labor conditions for community doulas.

Is there an association between fertility and domestic violence in Nepal?

BACKGROUND: Intimate partner violence and nonpartner violence are common in Nepal, yet the relationship between violence and fertility is unclear. The risk of violence for young, newly married women in Nepal may be associated with becoming pregnant and giving birth due to either the family's desire to protect the fetus (reducing violence) or the added household stressors that accompany a pregnancy (increasing violence). OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate changes in partner and nonpartner violence over time in early marriage and explore the hypothesis that conception and childbirth may be associated with risk of domestic violence. STUDY DESIGN: We surveyed newly married women aged 18 to 25 years and living in the Nawalparasi district of Nepal in 4 rounds of data collection at 6-month intervals over 2 years. At each survey, interviewers asked whether participants had experienced any violence within the previous 6 months, including details about the type and perpetrator of the violence, and whether they had ever been pregnant or given birth. RESULTS: A cohort of 200 participants completed the baseline survey and 183 (92%) completed all 4 survey rounds. The proportion of participants experiencing any recent violence increased substantially over time. By the end of the study, 58% of participants reported experiencing intimate partner violence, nonpartner violence, or both in the previous 6 months. Most participants had been pregnant (148 [79%]) and given birth (117 [64%]) during the study period. Multivariate models were used to estimate the odds of any intimate partner violence during the previous 6 months. The odds of experiencing any intimate partner violence were more than 2 times higher for participants who became pregnant (odds ratio, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.0-4.7) and gave birth (odds ratio, 2.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-7.2) than for those who did not. After adjusting for covariates, pregnancy and birth were not statistically associated with a change in the odds of reporting any nonpartner violence. CONCLUSION: Our study indicates that newly married young women in Nepal are vulnerable to violence in the home from both partners and nonpartners. Our findings support the hypothesis that risk of intimate partner violence may be greater during the perinatal period. The longitudinal nature of the study contributes to the existing literature by adding evidence that violence increases in early marriage and is positively associated with pregnancy and birth.

Changes in expectation of relationship permanence, pregnancy acceptability and desire, and contraceptive use over time among young Latino/a women and men: An exploratory analysis.

OBJECTIVE: We longitudinally assess associations between changes in expectation of relationship permanence-a measure that incorporates both relationship duration and commitment-pregnancy desire and acceptability, and highly effective contraception use among young U.S. Latino/as. STUDY DESIGN: We used multivariable logistic regression to analyze associations between changes in relationship factors, pregnancy acceptability and desire, and contraceptive method use over 6 months among 299 U.S. Latino/a women and men (ages 18-34) in relationships in a longitudinal study (retention rate: 32.4%). RESULTS: Respondents who found a pregnancy less acceptable at endline than at baseline were more likely to use highly effective contraception at endline (OR 2.97, 95% CI 1.09, 8.08). Respondents estimating an increase in relationship permanence more than one standard deviation of the mean were 4.90 (95% CI 1.17, 20.55) times more likely to use highly effective contraception at endline, compared to those without a change in estimation of relationship permanence. CONCLUSION: In this longitudinal study of young adult Latino/as in relationships, we found associations between changes in respondents' perceptions of the acceptability of a pregnancy and expectation of the permanence of their relationship and highly effective contraceptive use. Our findings reiterate the complicated, intertwined links between relationship dynamics, pregnancy orientation, contraception, and time. IMPLICATIONS: The significance of decreased pregnancy acceptability (but not desire) for using highly effective contraception suggests the importance of acknowledging pregnancy acceptability in contraceptive counseling, particularly because providers are more likely to direct Latino/a young adults towards methods that may not fulfill their contraceptive desires. Including discussion of young people's expectations of relationship permanence may also be meaningful in counseling.

The association between religiosity and pregnancy acceptability among Latino/a young adults: does generational status matter?

The US Latino/a population is considered to be at high risk for unintended pregnancy; some research indicates that Latino/a parents are more likely to express happiness about an unintended pregnancy than other racial/ethnic groups. Associations between pregnancy attitudes and factors such as religiosity and nativity have also been documented in the Latino/a population, but existing research is sparse, dated and primarily focused on women of Mexican heritage. This study sought to expand this literature by examining the relationship between religiosity and pregnancy acceptability and assessing effect modification by generational status and gender in a national sample of young Latino/a cisgender women and men of various ancestral backgrounds currently in relationships. In multivariable logistic regression models, there was a positive association between importance of religion and pregnancy acceptability for both men and women; being highly or moderately religious was associated with elevated odds of finding a pregnancy acceptable. Effect modification by generational status was significant for women, but not for men. Results suggest that religiosity, gender and generational status have differential influences on and relationships to pregnancy orientations for Latina women and Latino men and should be considered in the design and delivery of family planning care for Latino/a clients.

Medical conditions, pregnancy perspectives and contraceptive decision-making among young people: an exploratory, qualitative analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To explore perspectives on family planning among young people who perceive they are infertile or will have difficulty carrying a pregnancy to term owing to medical conditions or procedures. METHODS: This exploratory analysis examined pregnancy plans and contraceptive behavior among 12 young adults with a diagnosed medical condition or who had undergone a medical procedure associated with impaired fertility, and who had discussed fertility with a healthcare provider. We utilized data from a larger study investigating prospective pregnancy intentions and plans among 50 young (ages 18-24) women and their male partners (n=100). RESULTS: Medical conditions included endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, and lupus. For some, medical conditions/procedures led to use of no or less effective contraception; perceived risk for pregnancy was low, though seven participants had previously experienced pregnancies. Participants also described how medical conditions altered their timelines for pregnancy and overall desire for children; for example, one participant described continuing an unplanned pregnancy because she feared it would be her only chance to parent. CONCLUSION: This exploratory analysis suggests that among young people, medical issues perceived to affect fertility and pregnancy may influence pregnancy planning and contraceptive behavior. Young people may lack knowledge about fertility and the impact of a medical condition; thus it is critical that providers clarify the difference between anticipated difficulty conceiving and complete infertility. Tailored contraceptive care is needed for young adults with medical conditions that may affect fertility to ensure they have the necessary information to make informed family planning decisions. IMPLICATIONS: Medical conditions known to affect fertility may influence young people's family planning desires and behaviors. Understanding how young adults process information about medical conditions' impact on their fertility and change or make plans in response is important in order to best meet their family planning needs.

The Misclassification of Ambivalence in Pregnancy Intentions: A Mixed-Methods Analysis.

CONTEXT: Researchers have developed various measures of pregnancy ambivalence in an effort to capture the nuance overlooked by conventional, binary measures of pregnancy intention. However, the conceptualization and operationalization of the concept of ambivalence vary widely and may miss the complexity inherent in pregnancy intentions, particularly for young people, among whom unintended pregnancy rates are highest. METHODS: To investigate the utility and accuracy of current measures of pregnancy ambivalence, a mixed-methods study was conducted with 50 young women and their male partners in northern California in 2015-2016. Survey data were used to descriptively analyze six existing pregnancy ambivalence measures; in-depth interviews addressing pregnancy desires and plans were deductively coded and thematically analyzed to understand why some participants appeared to be ambivalent from the survey data when their interview responses suggested otherwise. RESULTS: Eighty participants would be considered ambivalent by at least one measure. After assessment of the interview data, however, these measures were deemed to have misclassified almost all (78) participants. Qualitative analysis revealed several themes regarding misclassification: conflation of current pregnancy desires with expected postconception emotional responses; acceptability of an undesired pregnancy; tempering of survey responses to account for partners' desires; perceived lack of control regarding pregnancy; and, among participants with medical conditions perceived to impact fertility, subjugation of pregnancy desires in the interest of self-protection. CONCLUSIONS: Current approaches to measuring pregnancy ambivalence may fail to capture the intricacies of pregnancy intentions and may be ineffective if they do not account for young people's experiences, especially when used to inform clinical practice, programs and policy.

Financial Strain and Contraceptive Use Among Women in the United States: Differential Effects by Age.

INTRODUCTION: Low-income and young women experience disproportionately high rates of unintended pregnancy. Traditional measures of socioeconomic status may not be appropriate indicators of financial status, particularly during emerging adulthood. This study investigates the relationship between financial strain and contraceptive use, focusing on the differential effects by age group. METHODS: Multinomial logistic regression analyses assessed the relationship between financial strain and contraceptive use in a national sample of U.S. women ages 18-39 years (N = 932). Models were adjusted for income, employment status, and other sociodemographic characteristics and tested the interaction of financial strain and age group. RESULTS: Women with high financial strain were less likely to use short-acting methods (compared with using no method) in the adjusted model; when the age and financial strain interaction was included, associations held only for women ages 18-24 and 25-29 years of age. Relative to contraceptive nonuse, women ages 18-24 years with high financial strain were less likely to use long-acting reversible (relative risk ratio [RRR], 0.10; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.01-0.99) and short-acting hormonal (RRR, 0.03; 95% CI, 0.00-0.18) methods. Women ages 25-29 with high financial strain were less likely to use short-acting hormonal (RRR, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.05-0.87) and coital-specific (RRR, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.02-0.51) methods. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND/OR POLICY: Young women may be vulnerable to the effect of high financial strain on contraceptive nonuse. Providers working with this group should consider incorporating financial strain into screening tools to identify patients who may need extra attention in contraceptive decision-making conversations. Antipoverty programs could also have a positive effect on effective contraceptive use.

It's Not Planned, But Is It Okay? The Acceptability of Unplanned Pregnancy Among Young People.

BACKGROUND: It is well-established that current measures of pregnancy intentions fail to capture the complexity of couples' lived experiences and decisions regarding reproductive decision making. Despite limitations, these measures guide programs, policy, and clinical practice. Herein, we explore prospective pregnancy acceptability, which captures whether individuals anticipate considering an unexpected pregnancy welcomed, manageable, or okay. METHODS: Individual qualitative interviews were conducted with 50 young (ages 18-24 years) women and their male partners (N = 100) to elucidate prospective pregnancy desires and perspectives on pregnancy planning. Using a thematic approach, we analyzed data from a subsample (n = 88) of participants who did not currently desire a pregnancy. RESULTS: Despite lack of pregnancy desire, 37 participants indicated that a pregnancy would be acceptable. Several themes emerged as reasons for pregnancy acceptability, including feeling prepared for children, relational stability, having knowledge of what it takes to parent, and taking a "whatever happens" approach toward pregnancy planning. Notably, a number of reasons for pregnancy acceptability were also described as reasons for lack of acceptability. For example, although many parents in the sample found pregnancy acceptable owing to their knowledge of the time and resources that raising children required, other parents found pregnancy unacceptable for this same reason. CONCLUSIONS: Acceptability captures nuances of prospective views on pregnancy and what it means for young people's lives that current intentions language and framing often neglects. Additionally, acceptability may be a construct that resonates with the perspectives and lives of young people for whom the notion of active pregnancy planning is not salient.

Trafficking and Health: A Systematic Review of Research Methods.

Trafficking in persons (TIP) is a human rights violation with serious public health consequences. Unfortunately, assessing TIP and its health sequelae rigorously and reliably is challenging due to TIP's clandestine nature, variation in definitions of TIP, and the need to use research methods that ensure studies are ethical and feasible. To help guide practice, policy, and research to assess TIP and health, we undertook a systematic literature review of 70 peer-reviewed, published articles to (a) identify TIP and health research methods being used, (b) determine what we can learn about TIP and health from these varied methodologies, and (c) determine the gaps that exist in health-focused TIP research. Results revealed that there are various quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis methods being used to investigate TIP and health. Furthermore, findings show that the limitations of current methodologies affect what is known about TIP and health. In particular, varying definitions, participant recruitment strategies, ethical standards, and outcome measures all affect what is known about TIP and health. Moreover, findings demonstrate an urgent need for representative and nonpurposive recruitment strategies in future investigations of TIP and health as well as research on risk and protective factors related to TIP and health, intervention effectiveness, long-term health outcomes, and research on trafficked people beyond women trafficked for sex. We offer recommendations for research, policy, and practice based on review results.

Evaluating the feasibility and acceptability of sending pregnancy and abortion history surveys through SMS text messaging to help reach sustainable development goal 3.

INTRODUCTION: In Kenya, abortion is illegal under most circumstances, yet about 48 abortions per 1,000 women occurred in 2012. Given the stigma around abortion, little is known about the availability of safe abortion. Thus, we explored the feasibility and acceptability of using SMS mobile surveys to collect information about women's pregnancy and abortion histories in Kenya. METHODS: We sent a one-time mobile survey to 500 18-24year old women who had opted-in to a 16,000-person mobile survey panel. Women elected to answer questions about pregnancy only (number of pregnancies, number of births, age at first pregnancy) or pregnancy and abortion (ever tried to obtain an abortion and whether medical treatment was sought for any complications). The final question for all survey versions was an open-ended question asking respondents how they felt answering these questions. RESULTS: 356 (71%) responded to the initial survey question and 333 (94%) consented to answer questions about pregnancy. Of these, 233 (70%) agreed to answer questions about just pregnancy and 76 (23%) agreed to answer questions about pregnancy and abortion. Three-quarters of respondents indicated that they had positive or neutral feelings about answering these questions over SMS. Lastly, all data was retrieved within 24h of survey distribution allowing for immediate analysis and dissemination. CONCLUSION: Women's willingness to share their pregnancy history suggests mobile surveys are a cost-effective and accessible method for gathering information on abortion in Kenya.

Preferences for a potential longer-acting injectable contraceptive: perspectives from women, providers, and policy makers in Kenya and Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: Between 1995 and 2005, injectable use doubled worldwide. However, discontinuation rates remain high, partly because of side effects but also because of missed appointments for reinjection. A longer-acting injectable (LAI) may improve compliance by reducing the required number of reinjection visits, thereby reducing unintentional discontinuation. This study examined acceptability of LAI characteristics comprising the target product profile (TPP). METHODS: In 2012, we conducted qualitative case studies in Kenya and Rwanda, consisting of 19 focus group discussions (FGDs) with 177 current, previous, or never users of injectables and 46 in-depth interviews (IDIs) with providers, program implementers, and policy makers. FGDs and IDIs assessed current injectable experiences; attitudes toward potential LAI products; and perceptions of TPP attributes, including ranking preferences for the most and least important characteristics. In addition, we obtained completed electronic surveys from 28 international family planning opinion leaders about the perceived need for an LAI, important product characteristics, and challenges to LAI development or introduction. RESULTS: Many FGD participants and interviewees spontaneously expressed strong interest in an LAI, but there was some variation in TPP preferences. The majority of participants ranked effectiveness as the most important TPP attribute. Providers were generally more concerned about side effects than potential users; some potential users suggested that side effects were related less to the product than to their own body chemistry and that side effects were acceptable as long as they did not last a long time or disrupt daily activities. Women and providers, especially in Kenya, preferred a method with a predictable return to fertility. Some participants associated amenorrhea with delayed or reduced fertility. Most women and providers preferred delivery of the LAI in a single, prepackaged, disposable injection system to facilitate injections by providers and to reduce the risk of pain or discomfort for women. While providers and policy makers ranked cost as one of the most important issues, it was among the least important issues for most potential users. Many Kenyan, but few Rwandan, participants appeared willing to pay for an LAI, with some presuming cost savings from reduced menstruation and fewer clinic visits. CONCLUSIONS: Some TPP preferences for an LAI have implications for product development decisions about formulation, delivery mechanism, or presentation, while others point to the need for tailored communication and counseling approaches to ensure acceptability and adherence within clinical trials and beyond.

Policy and programmatic considerations for introducing a longer-acting injectable contraceptive: perspectives of stakeholders from Kenya and Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: More than 40 million women use injectable contraceptives to prevent pregnancy, and most current or previous injectable users report being satisfied with the method. However, while women may find injectables acceptable, they may not always find them accessible due to stock-outs and difficulties with returning to the clinic for reinjections. FHI 360 is spearheading efforts to develop a longer-acting injectable (LAI) contraceptive that could provide at least 6 months of protection against pregnancy. This article addresses systems-level considerations for the introduction of a new LAI. METHODS: We conducted qualitative case studies in Kenya and Rwanda-two countries that have high levels of injectable use but with different service delivery contexts. Between June and September 2012, we conducted in-depth interviews with 27 service providers and 19 policy makers and program implementers focusing on 4 themes: systems-level barriers and facilitators to delivering LAI services; process for introducing an LAI; LAI distribution approaches; and potential LAI characteristics. We also obtained electronic feedback from 28 international family planning opinion leaders. RESULTS: Respondents indicated strong interest in an LAI and thought it would appeal to existing injectable users as well as new family planning clients, both for spacing and for limiting births. Providers appreciated the potential for a lighter workload due to fewer follow-up visits, but they were concerned that fewer visits would also decrease their ability to help women manage side effects. The providers also appreciated the 1-month grace period for follow-up LAI injections; some seemed unaware of the latest international guidance that had increased the grace period from 2 weeks to 4 weeks for the currently available 3-month injectable. The majority of policy makers and program implementers were supportive of letting community health workers provide the method, but many nurses and midwives in Kenya had reservations about the approach. At the policy level, respondents indicated that obtaining regulatory approvals before introducing the new method could be costly and time-consuming. Manufacturing and procurement decisions could also affect cost and availability. CONCLUSIONS: Successful introduction of a potential longer-acting injectable may be enhanced by considering broader systemic issues, including managing cost to the health system and users, expanding access through community-based distribution, and training providers on the latest service delivery guidelines.