An atlas of anatomical variants of the human calcaneus.

The usefulness of anatomical variation is determined by the knowledge of why nonmetric traits appear. Clear descriptions of the traits are a necessary task, due to the risk of confusing anatomical variants and evidence of trauma. Numerous interpretations of the appearance of calcaneal anatomical variants add to the need of an anatomical atlas of calcaneal nonmetric traits. We have analyzed a total of 886 calcanei; 559 belong to different modern and pre-Hispanic samples, and 327 bones were studied from a reference collection from Athens. In this study, we present the anatomical variations that exist on the calcaneus bone, some of which have rarely been mentioned in previous research. The standardization of methods proposed may be useful to experts working in human anatomy, physical anthropology as well as comparative morphology, due to usefulness of this information during surgery, and bioanthropology to observe and study the lifestyle of past populations.

Intracemetery relationships: Non-metric trait combination analysis of Maspalomas of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain).

Maspalomas is one of the most important archaeological sites in Gran Canaria, Canary Islands. The necropolis is one of the few funerary sites on the island where several the skeletons were found in anatomical position. The burials correspond to graves and cists dated between the 12th and 15th century CE. These graves and cists are clustered together in different formations across the necropolis, giving rise to a complex composition that denotes the existence of possible interpersonal relationships of the people buried there. A total of 135 calcanei and 118 tali were analysed to find non-metric traits and to test whether the clustered burials share a non-metric trait relationship. Trait combinations were formed using talus and calcaneus non-metric traits separately. The results of this study suggest that the individuals of Maspalomas showed a very high prevalence of lateral and medial talar facets, attributed to prolonged squatting position and/or walking on uneven ground. The calcaneal facet pattern (that may be aetiologically genetic) is more closely related to that observed among North-Africans or Indians than to Western Europeans. Calcaneal facet type Ib, and other genetically-determined traits, such as the extra facet extension of Posterior Facet, or the medial root of the inferior extensor retinaculum trait, either as single traits or as the combination of both traits, were significantly associated with individuals buried in different geographical areas of the necropolis defined by differences in burial structures, a finding that may suggest that genetically-linked individuals were buried in a separate area of the necropolis. The use of trait combination analysis in this study shows that the method can be applied to identify relationships among genetically or professionally related individuals that were subjected to a different burial procedure by their contemporaries.

Osteosclerotic disease and bone cyst in a prehispanic burial from Las Cañadas del Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands).

Skeletal remains of two prehispanic male adult individuals (antiquity ≈ 550 BP) recovered from a burial cave located in Montaña Blanca (Las Cañadas del Teide) at an altitude of 2450 m above sea level, in the highlands of Tenerife (Canary Islands) showed some unusual features. Femora and tibiae of both individuals showed increased bone density, with irregular thickening of the midshaft diaphyses. One individual showed a cystic lesion in the distal third of the left femoral diaphysis, surrounded by a subtle sclerotic reaction of the spongiosa and a thin cortex that was partially fractured. Periosteal thickening was present, but not around the cystic lesion. A thoracic vertebra with rachischisis was also recovered. The bone density of vertebrae and iliac bones were normal, and one recovered jaw was also normal. The tibiae of one individual showed an abnormal location of the foramen nutritium. Hypoplasia of the lesser trochanter and an abnormally thin left femoral neck were also observed. It is possible that both individuals were affected by diaphyseal dysplasia (possibly Camurati Engelmann or Ribbing disease). One of them also showed a lesion compatible with a unicameral bone cyst. The alternative possibility of a Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber disease, with a bone aneurysmal cyst, also exists.

The early lives of the islanders: Stable isotope analysis of incremental dentine collagen from the prehispanic period of the Canary Islands.

OBJECTIVES: This study presents isotopic information for incremental dentine collagen and bone bulk collagen from individuals from the Canary Islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) to explore dietary differences during childhood life. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eight individuals have been studied, which comprises 122 δ15 N and δ13 C incremental dentine measurements and eight bulk bone collagen analyses. A baseline of potentially consumed food sources has been developed for comparative purposes. A food reconstruction using isotopic transferred signals (FRUITS) model of probable contributions of each food source towards the diet of each individual has been developed. All samples but one belongs to the later period of indigenous occupation of the archipelago. RESULTS: The dentine collagen data are presented in correlated δ13 C and δ15 N plots per individual, showing the isotopic changes throughout time. δ15 N values for each individual tend to be variable whereas δ13 C data are generally more stable with a range of +9.1 to +14‰ for δ15 N and -17.4 to -20.8‰ for δ13 C. CONCLUSION: The isotopic analysis allows for the reconstruction of eight dietary profiles, which allow us to estimate the different dietary protein sources. The FRUITS model shows different percentages of the primary food sources for each individual. Where both δ13 C and δ15 N are elevated, this could be indicative of a higher marine contribution to the diet. There appear to be two main dietary profiles identifiable in the dataset and these may be related to changes in status or place of residence. Short-term variations in δ13 C and δ15 N and opposing co-variance of isotopic values can be indicative of nutritional stress, although metabolic changes during growth are also considered.

A Prehispanic infant from Tenerife with diffuse microporotic lesions.

We describe diffuse microporotic lesions observed in most of the scattered skeletal remains belonging to a ≈ 6 months-old female (genetic sexing) prehispanic (antiquity ≈ 600 years BP) individual recovered from a small recess of a basaltic burial cave in the highlands (2300 m above sea level) of Tenerife. Although sphenoid wings were lacking, microporotic lesions were present in several bones, especially in the hard palate, basilar part of the occipital bone, outer aspect of the maxilla, and proximal half of the right humerus, accompanied by a subtle periosteal reaction. Although non-specific, bone lesions may be compatible with scurvy, possibly in the context of malnutrition, that probably also affected the mother, given the young age of the infant and her dependence on maternal feeding. Pathophysiological connections among iron deficiency, vitamin C deficiency and vitamin D deficiency are discussed. Both observational reports on paleopathological cases of diffuse microporotic lesions as well as experimental studies devoted to discern the relative and combined effects of hypoxia-mediated bone marrow expansion, protein-calorie malnutrition, ascorbate, vitamin D or iron deficiency on such lesions are needed.

Dietary changes across time: Studying the indigenous period of La Gomera using δ13 C and δ15 N stable isotope analysis and radiocarbon dating.

OBJECTIVES: This article presents new radiocarbon and isotopic data to provide further information about the diet of the indigenous population of La Gomera and its possible changes across time. MATERIALS AND METHODS: δ13 C and δ15 N of 53 human and 19 faunal samples from different sites on the island have been obtained and analyzed. Of these, 52 have been radiocarbon dated to provide insight on chronological changes. RESULTS: Human dates range from the 3rd to 15th centuries AD, while faunal dates range from the 1st to 17th centuries AD. Stable carbon and nitrogen values are significantly different between the human and goat samples and have also a trophic increase of 3.4‰. Although male and female δ15 N data are not significantly different. Both δ13 C and δ15 N values of both human and animal samples tend to discretely decrease over time. DISCUSSION: Radiocarbon dates from humans correlate with other dates obtained in the rest of the archipelago. Animal radiocarbon dates generally coincide except for one date, which requires further study. Isotopic δ15 N data suggest a mix of marine and terrestrial protein consumption in humans, the latter being more abundant given the seasonality of the first. δ13 C data also suggest a possible mixed diet in humans, with a predominance of C3 plants, like Hordeum vulgare, the only grain found in archaeological sites so far. Variations of both δ13 C and δ15 N over time suggest a slight modification on the diet, which could be related to environmental changes.

Identifying sialoliths through SEM technology.

OBJECTIVE: To define SEM characteristics that may aid identification of sialoliths. MATERIALS: Two sialoliths from modern patients affected by sialadenitis. METHODS: Samples were coated with silver and subjected to scanning electron microscopy using an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy detector. Samples were then sectioned to permit study of the internal structure. RESULTS: Sialoliths show an external smooth surface with no distinctive features. Internal structures consist of a distinctive aggregate of coarse granules of different sizes surrounded by a lamellar coat. Elemental composition consists of carbon, phosphate, calcium and oxygen, with traces of magnesium. The proportion of these elements differs between the core and the surface. CONCLUSION: Although elemental composition is not specific, SEM analyses of sialoliths greatly differ from those of sesamoid bones, gallstones and nephroliths. Therefore, SEM analysis constitutes a useful tool for the precise identification of small calcified structures recovered during archaeological excavations. SIGNIFICANCE: Precise identification of calcified structures may provide information about nutritional and/or pathological aspects of past individuals. LIMITATIONS: Sialoliths are less common than other types of calcifications, and only two cases were analyzed in this study. FUTURE PROSPECTS: SEM technology should be applied to identify the etiology of all minute calcified remains recovered during archaeological excavations of burial sites.

Identifying small pelvic inclusions through SEM technology.

Tiny calcified structures may be occasionally recovered during excavation of human skeletal remains. Since taphonomic processes may displace these structures from their topographical relation with neighbouring organs or bones, differential diagnoses may pose a major challenge to the archeologist and/or anthropologist. Enteroliths, kidney stones or gallstones, phleboliths, calcified ganglia, or sesamoid bones account for most of such calcified tiny structures. In addition to their pure medical/paleopathological interest, some remains may be related to diet, to chronic haemolytic conditions, and/or to infections or chronic intestinal diseases. We here describe the technical procedures carried out to confirm or refute the identification of a sesamoid bone. The object in question was a small (5 × 3 × 2 mm) calcified structure that appeared over the right coxal bone of an 18th century individual buried in the church Nuestra Señora de La Concepción, in Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands). For comparative purposes we also analyzed kidney stones and gallstones from modern individuals. As shown in this study, scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis is the preferred method to establish a precise differential diagnosis in these cases.

Differences in tibial shape among the Prehispanic inhabitants from Gomera, Punta Azul (El Hierro), and Gran Canaria (Canary Islands).

ABSTRACT: The Canary Archipelago was colonized by North African Berbers who arrived at the Islands in the first millenium BC. Although it was classically considered that the prehispanic population was more or less uniform, recent genetic analysis has disclosed that some differences did exist between inhabitants of the different islands. From pure anthropometrical point of view, detailed inspection of some bones such as tibiae of prehispanic inhabitants of different islands allow the detection of some differences in tibial shape, especially regarding the relative size of both the proximal and distal thirds of these bones. On this basis, we have elaborated and calculated several indexes combining distal and proximal breadth measurements that define the global shape of the tibia. We have compared these indexes among the prehispanic population of the three islands for which sex has been accurately established. Both men and women from La Gomera, and, especially, from El Hierro, showed thicker distal ends of the tibiae with respect to proximal ones, in contrast with the population of Gran Canaria. In addition, differences among male and female tibiae were more marked among the population of Gran Canaria than among those of Gomera and El Hierro. Differences in these indexes could point either to differences in genetical background or to differences in activity. Compared with single anthropometric measurements, these indices separate better the population of the different islands. Just the opposite was observed when logistic regression analysis was used to analyse differences in sex.

Prehispanic (Guanches) mummies and natrium salts in burial caves of Las Cañadas del Teide (Tenerife).

ABSTRACT: The prehispanic population of Tenerife (Guanches) buried their dead in caves. Many corpses are totally or partially mummified. Embalming procedures are largely unknown, besides some information recorded by chroniclers and the general idea that environmental conditions in some areas may favour natural mummification. Detailed observation of burial caves containing mummified corpses revealed the presence of a white mineral in form of crusts or powder that was not present in the vast majority of non-burial caves, especially in basaltic and trachybasaltic lava flows. We analysed these crusts and they consist of natrium carbonate salts. Therefore, we conducted a search visiting 30 caves, 3 of them harbouring mummified corpses, and made analyses if there were natrium salts in these caves and their amount. One burial cave was located in trachyphonolitic lava flow, and two further caves in trachybasaltic and basaltic lava flows. There was a significant association between presence of natrium salts and use of the cave as a burial site (χ2 = 9.37; p = 0.0259). The semiquantitatively assessed amount of natrium salts was also by far higher in burial caves than in non-burial ones (Z = 2.58, p = 0.01). There are no reports that support the use of natrium salts in the embalming process among the Guanches, but we found a clear-cut relationship between the presence and/or amount of natrium salts in caves and their use as burial sites by the prehispanic population buried in the central highlands, suggesting an intentional use of caves containing this mineral as burial caves, based perhaps on the observation of the ability of natrium salts to preserve corpses.

Osteoarthritis among the prehispanic population from La Gomera and El Hierro (Canary Islands): a comparative study.

The pathogenesis of osteoarthritis is still unclear, and several factors may play a role in its development, including joint trauma or microtrauma (usually related to lifestyle), local inflammation, loading charge, and genetics. Assessment of osteoarthritis among ancient populations is important, since it may yield information relative to life habits. Therefore, we have performed the present study in order to assess the prevalence of osteoarthritis among the prehispanic populations from La Gomera and El Hierro, two islands of the Canary Archipelago with a similar size and altitude which were colonized by individuals of North African origin about 2000 - 2500 years ago. The economy of these people was based on goat herding, shellfishing, and agriculture together with consumption of some wild vegetal species. However, despite a similar geographic environment and a similar economic pattern, prevalence of osteoarthritis was by far higher among the population from La Gomera (78.57 % vs 15.85 %, p < 0.001), and that of eburnation, 11.65 % and 1.05 %, respectively (p = 0.016); in contrast, the population of El Hierro was markedly more robust than that of La Gomera. Globally, a trend to an inverse relationship was observed between epiphyseal robusticity index and the presence of osteoarthritis, which was statistically significant when only men were analysed. However, after performing a multivariate analysis, the only factor that was independently related to the presence of osteoarthritis was the variable "island" (i.e., population group), suggesting that - possibly - genetic factors played a major role in the differences observed.

Sexual dimorphism: a comparative study between the prehispanic inhabitants from El Hierro and other populations of the world

Sex estimation based on tibial measurements can be achieved using discriminant functions combining several parameters. However, functions differ from one population to another, because sexual dimorphism may be more or less marked among different ancestry or ethnic groups. Calculation of one of these functions with the dimensions of populations other than that from which the function was obtained may misclassify a different proportion of males or females than when calculated with the dimensions of the original population. By dividing the proportions of correctly classified individuals when the function was applied to the population from which it derived and that of El Hierro (Canary Islands), we can calculate an index of male trait expression and an index of female trait expression, and, by addition of both indices, an index of sexual dimorphism. Therefore, it is possible to compare the degree of sexual dimorphism among several populations, at least regarding those measurements included in the function. Based on this fact we have calculated several functions (reported in the scientific literature), obtained from tibiae of modern black, white, and Japanese populations, and from medieval Croatians and prehispanic inhabitants of Gran Canaria (ap. 1000 BP), with the dimensions of the prehispanic population of El Hierro, genetically sexed, also with an antiquity of ap. 1000 BP. Despite the different antiquity, the population of El Hierro was more dimorphic that the modern Japanese one, but less dimorphic than most of the other groups with which it was compared, especially when functions including distal epiphyseal breadth and minimum shaft perimeter (near the distal end of the tibiae) were calculated: in these cases, dimorphism was lower for the population of El Hierro, due to the fact that, although male trait expression index was higher, many females of El Hierro were misclassified as males because of the abnormally thick distal diaphyseal and epiphyseal breadths of El Hierro inhabitants

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A skeletal case of hypertrophic osteoarthropathy from the Canary Islands dating from 1000 BP.

A left tibia, the distal right tibia, and the proximal four fifths of the right ulna and radius, probably belonging to an adult prehispanic man (antiquity of ≈1000 years BP) were found among commingled bone remains in a collective burial cave of the island of El Hierro, in the Canary Archipelago. All four bones show an intense periosteal bone formation, encrusting the preserved cortical bone of the diaphyses. Differential diagnosis include melorheostosis, syphilis, and leprosy, although the most likely diagnosis is hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, which is usually associated with lung neoplasm or non-malignant diseases leading to chronic hypoxemia. The marked bone proliferation, possibly due to a chronic condition, suggests that possibly the underlying illness was a non-malignant one.

Cartilage-derived tumor in a prehispanic individual from La Gomera (Canary Islands).

We present the case of a left tibia with an outgrowth at its distal metaphyseal/epiphyseal end, composed of cancellous bone, surrounding a destructive process that, on radiological examination, reaches the tibiotalar joint surface. The cancellous bone of the outgrowth is well preserved and is in continuity with intramedullary cancellous bone. The tibia belonged to a prehispanic adult individual, probably male, from La Gomera, in the Canary Archipelago. The antiquity of the sample is unknown, but radiocarbon dating of other samples ranges from 1600 to1800 years BP. The lesion is suggestive of a cartilage-derived tumor, most likely a chondrosarcoma. Other etiologic possibilities are also discussed, including osteochondroma, enchondroma, chondromyxoid fibroma or chondroblastoma.

Relationships between bending and torsional strengths of the tibia and simple anthropometric variables among the prehispanic population of El Hierro (Canary Islands)

Assessment of skeletal robusticity is an important tool for the archaeologist and anthropologist, since it may be related to the intensity and type of activity performed by ancient population groups. Development of computed tomography (CT) allows determination of biomechanical properties of long bones. However, CT technology may not be easily available and is a relatively expensive procedure. Therefore, it is pertinent to estimate whether any of the parameters which can be easily measured in bare bones by simple anthropometry are useful to assess the torsional strength and bending strength of these bones. We included twenty one well preserved tibiae corresponding to prehispanic adult individuals (13 men) of El Hierro. These bones were anthropometrically measured following classical methods, and also subjected to CT analysis, and further calculation of minimum and maximum second moments and polar second moment of area, both at midshaft and at the nutrient foramen levels, using the software (www.hopkinsmedicine.org/FAE/mmacro.htm). The diaphyseal robusticity index showed a close relationship with minimum second moment of area at the nutrient foramen (r=0.824, p<0.001) and polar second moment of area at the nutrient foramen (r=0.824, p<0.001), whereas correlations with the epiphyseal robusticity index were weaker (r=0.628, p=0.005, and r=0.618, p=0.007, respectively). The variable which allows the best estimation of the torsional strength is the perimeter at the nutrient foramen, by the formula Polar second moment of area (in mm3) = -700.30 + 11.77 * perimeter at the nutrient foramen (in mm) for the whole population (standard error of the estimation=56.91; absolute range from-114.26 to 140.29), or Polar second moment of area (in mm3) = -897.93 + 13.74 * perimeter at the nutrient foramen (in mm) when only men were analyzed, with a standard error of the estimation of 32.17 (absolute range= from -44.53 to 50.32 mm3)

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Paleoparasitologic, paleogenetic and paleobotanic analysis of XVIII century coprolites from the church La Concepción in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

We present the results of a paleoparasitologic, paleogenetic and paleobotanic analysis of coprolites recovered during the excavation of the church La Concepción in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Coprolites (n = 4) were rehydrated and a multidisciplinary analysis was conducted. The paleobotanic analysis showed numerous silicates, seeds and fruits of the family Moraceae. In the paleoparasitologic study, Ascaris sp. eggs (n = 344) were identified. The paleogenetic results confirmed the Ascaris sp. infection as well as the European origin of human remains. These findings contribute to our knowledge of ancient helminthes infections and are the first paleoparasitological record of Ascaris sp. infection in Spain.

Paleoparasitologic, paleogenetic and paleobotanic analysis of XVIII century coprolites from the church La Concepción in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.

We present the results of a paleoparasitologic, paleogenetic and paleobotanic analysis of coprolites recovered during the excavation of the church La Concepción in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Coprolites (n = 4) were rehydrated and a multidisciplinary analysis was conducted. The paleobotanic analysis showed numerous silicates, seeds and fruits of the family Moraceae. In the paleoparasitologic study, Ascaris sp. eggs (n = 344) were identified. The paleogenetic results confirmed the Ascaris sp. infection as well as the European origin of human remains. These findings contribute to our knowledge of ancient helminthes infections and are the first paleoparasitological record of Ascaris sp. infection in Spain.