Development of new QSAR models for water, sediment, and soil half-life.

Checking the persistence of a chemical in the environment is extremely important. Regulations like REACH, the European one on chemicals, require the measurements or estimates of the half-life of the chemical in water, sediment, and soil. The use of non-testing methods, like quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models, is encouraged because it reduces costs and time. To our knowledge, there are very few freely available models for these properties and some are for specific chemical classes. Here, we present three new semi-quantitative models, one for each of the required environmental compartments (water, sediment, and soil). Using literature and REACH registration data, we developed three new counter-propagation artificial neural network models using the CPANNatNIC tool. We calculated the VEGA descriptors, and selected the relevant ones using an internal method in R based on the forward selection technique. The best model for each compartment was implemented in two open-source stand-alone tools, the VEGA platform, and the JANUS tool (https://www.vegahub.eu/). These models were also used by ECHA to build their PBT profiler available in the OECD QSAR toolbox (https://qsartoolbox.org/). Screening and prioritization are also our main target. The models perform well, with R2 always above 0.8 in training and validation. The only exception is the validation set of the soil compartment, with R2 0.68, that is above 0.8 only for compounds inside the applicability domain (automatically calculated by the system). The root mean square error (RMSE) is good, 0.34 or less in log units (again, for soil validation it is higher but it reaches 0.21 when considering only the compounds in the applicability domain). Compared with one of the most widely used tools, BIOWIN3, the proposed models give better results in terms of R2 and RMSE. For the classification, the performance is better for water and soil, and comparable or lower for sediment.

New Models to Predict the Acute and Chronic Toxicities of Representative Species of the Main Trophic Levels of Aquatic Environments.

To assess the impact of chemicals on an aquatic environment, toxicological data for three trophic levels are needed to address the chronic and acute toxicities. The use of non-testing methods, such as predictive computational models, was proposed to avoid or reduce the need for animal models and speed up the process when there are many substances to be tested. We developed predictive models for Raphidocelis subcapitata, Daphnia magna, and fish for acute and chronic toxicities. The random forest machine learning approach gave the best results. The models gave good statistical quality for all endpoints. These models are freely available for use as individual models in the VEGA platform and for prioritization in JANUS software.

Zebrafish AC50 modelling: (Q)SAR models to predict developmental toxicity in zebrafish embryo.

Developmental toxicity refers to the occurrence of adverse effects on a developing organism as a consequence of exposure to hazardous chemicals. The assessment of developmental toxicity has become relevant to the safety assessment process of chemicals. The zebrafish embryo developmental toxicology assay is an emerging test used to screen the teratogenic potential of chemicals and it is proposed as a promising test to replace teratogenic assays with animals. Supported by the increased availability of data from this test, the developmental toxicity assay with zebrafish has become an interesting endpoint for the in silico modelling. The purpose of this study was to build up quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models. In this work, new in silico models for the evaluation of developmental toxicity were built using a well-defined set of data from the ToxCastTM Phase I chemical library on the zebrafish embryo. Categorical and continuous QSAR models were built by gradient boosting machine learning and the Monte Carlo technique respectively, in accordance with Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development principles and their statistical quality was satisfactory. The classification model reached balanced accuracy 0.89 and Matthews correlation coefficient 0.77 on the test set. The regression model reached correlation coefficient R2 0.70 in external validation and leave-one-out cross-validated Q2 0.73 in internal validation.

ERGO: Breaking Down the Wall between Human Health and Environmental Testing of Endocrine Disrupters.

ERGO (EndocRine Guideline Optimization) is the acronym of a European Union-funded research and innovation action, that aims to break down the wall between mammalian and non-mammalian vertebrate regulatory testing of endocrine disruptors (EDs), by identifying, developing and aligning thyroid-related biomarkers and endpoints (B/E) for the linkage of effects between vertebrate classes. To achieve this, an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) network covering various modes of thyroid hormone disruption (THD) in multiple vertebrate classes will be developed. The AOP development will be based on existing and new data from in vitro and in vivo experiments with fish, amphibians and mammals, using a battery of different THDs. This will provide the scientifically plausible and evidence-based foundation for the selection of B/E and assays in lower vertebrates, predictive of human health outcomes. These assays will be prioritized for validation at OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) level. ERGO will re-think ED testing strategies from in silico methods to in vivo testing and develop, optimize and validate existing in vivo and early life-stage OECD guidelines, as well as new in vitro protocols for THD. This strategy will reduce requirements for animal testing by preventing duplication of testing in mammals and non-mammalian vertebrates and increase the screening capacity to enable more chemicals to be tested for ED properties.

A tiered high-throughput screening approach for evaluation of estrogen and androgen receptor modulation by environmentally relevant bisphenol A substitutes.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high production volume chemical with a broad application spectrum. As an endocrine disrupting chemical, mainly by modulation of nuclear receptors (NRs), BPA has an adverse impact on organisms and is identified as a substance of very high concern under the European REACH regulation. Various BPA substitution candidates have been developed in recent years, however, information concerning the endocrine disrupting potential of these substances is still incomplete or missing. In this study, we intended to investigate the endocrine potential of BPA substitution candidates used in environmentally relevant applications such as thermal paper or epoxy resins. Based on an extensive literature and patent search, 33 environmentally relevant BPA substitution candidates were identified. In order to evaluate the endocrine potential of the BPA replacements, a screening cascade consisting of biochemical and cell-based assays was employed to investigate substance binding to the NRs estrogen receptor α and ß, as well as androgen receptor, co-activator recruitment and NR-mediated reporter gene activation. In addition, a computational docking approach for retrospective prediction of receptor binding was carried out. Our results show that some BPA substitution candidates, for which so far no or only very few data were available, possess a substantial endocrine disrupting potential (TDP, BPZ), while several substances (BPS, D-8, DD70, DMP-OH, TBSA, D4, CBDO, ISO, VITC, DPA, and DOPO) did not reveal any NR binding.

Screening for potential endocrine disruptors in fish: evidence from structural alerts and in vitro and in vivo toxicological assays.

BACKGROUND: The European chemicals' legislation REACH aims to protect man and the environment from substances of very high concern (SVHC). Chemicals like endocrine disruptors (EDs) may be subject to authorization. Identification of (potential) EDs with regard to the environment is limited because specific experimental assessments are not standard requirements under REACH. Evidence is based on a combination of in vitro and in vivo experiments (if available), expert judgement, and structural analogy with known EDs. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study are to review and refine structural alerts for the indication of potential estrogenic and androgenic endocrine activities based on in vitro studies; to analyze in vivo mammalian long-term reproduction studies with regard to estrogen- and androgen-sensitive endpoints in order to identify potential indicators for endocrine activity with regard to the environment; to assess the consistency of potential estrogenic and androgenic endocrine activities based on in vitro assays and in vivo mammalian long-term reproduction studies and fish life-cycle tests; and to evaluate structural alerts, in vitro assays, and in vivo mammalian long-term reproduction studies for the indication of potential estrogenic and androgenic endocrine disruptors in fish. RESULTS: Screening for potential endocrine activities in fish via estrogenic and androgenic modes of action based on structural alerts provides similar information as in vitro receptor-mediated assays. Additional evidence can be obtained from in vivo mammalian long-term reproduction studies. Conclusive confirmation is possible with fish life-cycle tests. Application of structural alerts to the more than 33,000 discrete organic compounds of the EINECS inventory indicated 3585 chemicals (approx. 11%) as potential candidates for estrogenic and androgenic effects that should be further investigated. Endocrine activities of the remaining substances cannot be excluded; however, because the structural alerts perform much better for substances with (very) high estrogenic and androgenic activities, there is reasonable probability that the most hazardous candidates have been identified. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of structural alerts, in vitro receptor-based assays, and in vivo mammalian studies may support the priority setting for further assessments of chemicals with potential environmental hazards due to estrogenic and androgenic activities.

(Eco)toxicity and biodegradability of selected protic and aprotic ionic liquids.

Ionic liquids (ILs) are a promising group of compounds with a large variety of possible structures and uses. They are considered as a potential "green" replacement for traditional volatile organic solvents, but their impact on the environment is often neglected or not studied enough. In the present study, selected representatives of two ILs groups were analyzed: a new family of protic ILs (derived from aliphatic amines and organic acids) and some frequently used aprotic ILs (substituted imidazolium and piridinium chlorides). The aquatic toxicity (test organisms Vibrio fischeri, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and Lemna minor) and biodegradability tests were carried out. The additional tests with enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) and leukemia rat cells (IPC-81) provided more in-depth evaluation of toxicity. In our comparative hazard assessment protic ILs have EC50 values >100 mg L(-1) in all of the tests performed, except in the case of three representatives toward Lemna minor. They also show good biodegradability rates. The EC50 values for aprotic ILs are various orders of magnitude lower than the ones for protic ILs in most of the tests and they show a lower biodegradability potential. These findings indicate that protic ILs can be considered as environmentally safer alternatives for more toxic ILs and organic solvents.

Intrinsically green iron oxide nanoparticles? From synthesis via (eco-)toxicology to scenario modelling.

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONP) are currently being studied as green magnet resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. They are also used in huge quantities for environmental remediation and water treatment purposes, although very little is known on the consequences of such applications for organisms and ecosystems. In order to address these questions, we synthesised polyvinylpyrrolidone-coated IONP, characterised the particle dispersion in various media and investigated the consequences of an IONP exposure using an array of biochemical and biological assays. Several theoretical approaches complemented the measurements. In aqueous dispersion IONP had an average hydrodynamic diameter of 25 nm and were stable over six days in most test media, which could also be predicted by stability modelling. The particles were tested in concentrations of up to 100 mg Fe per L. The activity of the enzymes glutathione reductase and acetylcholine esterase was not affected, nor were proliferation, morphology or vitality of mammalian OLN-93 cells although exposure of the cells to 100 mg Fe per L increased the cellular iron content substantially. Only at this concentration, acute toxicity tests with the freshwater flea Daphnia magna revealed slightly, yet insignificantly increased mortality. Two fundamentally different bacterial assays, anaerobic activated sludge bacteria inhibition and a modified sediment contact test with Arthrobacter globiformis, both rendered results contrary to the other assays: at the lowest test concentration (1 mg Fe per L), IONP caused a pronounced inhibition whereas higher concentrations were not effective or even stimulating. Preliminary and prospective risk assessment was exemplified by comparing the application of IONP with gadolinium-based nanoparticles as MRI contrast agents. Predicted environmental concentrations were modelled in two different scenarios, showing that IONP could reduce the environmental exposure of toxic Gd-based particles by more than 50%. Application of the Swiss "Precautionary Matrix for Synthetic Nanomaterials" rendered a low precautionary need for using our IONP as MRI agents and a higher one when using them for remediation or water treatment. Since IONP and (considerably more reactive) zerovalent iron nanoparticles are being used in huge quantities for environmental remediation purposes, it has to be ascertained that these particles pose no risk to either human health or to the environment.

Interaction of dodecaborate cluster compounds on hydrophilic column materials in water.

The interaction of a series of dodecaborate cluster compounds B(12)X(12)(2-) and B(12)X(11)Y(2-) (X=H, Cl, Br, I and Y=SH, OH, NR(3)) with hydrophilic column materials (Superdex 200, Sepharose 4B, Sephadex G-50, Sephadex G-100, alumina, silica gel and anion exchange material) was studied. Almost all the dodecaborate cluster compounds were retained strongly on Superdex 200. The halogenated cluster compounds interacted with Sepharose 4B, Sephadex G-50, Sephadex G-100 and alumina; on alumina, also the non-halogenated clusters were retained. Silica gel showed the least interaction with all compounds. The thermodynamic parameters were investigated for a selection of compounds on Superdex 200 and Sephadex G-100. Values for ΔH° were found to be negative on both gels. As the change in entropy ΔS° was also negative, it compensated ΔH° to a large extent. The clusters interacted also strongly with anion exchange material in ion chromatography; the interaction decreased with increasing acetonitrile concentration, implying a large contribution from solvent effects.

Determination of LFER descriptors of 30 cations of ionic liquids--progress in understanding their molecular interaction potentials.

In order to understand molecular interaction potentials of 30 cations of ionic liquids (ILs), the well-known linear free energy relationship concept (LFER) was applied. The LFER descriptors for the excess molar refractivity and the molar volume were calculated in silico and for hydrogen-bonding acidity and basicity, and the polarizability/dipolarity of IL cations were experimentally determined through high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) measurements. For the study, three different columns (RP-select B, Cyan, and Diol) and buffered mobile phases, based on two organic solvents acetonitrile (ACN) and methanol (MeOH), were selectively combined to the HPLC separation systems RP-select B-ACN, RP-select B-MeOH, Cyan-MeOH, Diol-ACN, and Diol-MeOH. By measuring the retention factors of 45 neutral calibration compounds and calculating LFER descriptors of three cations in the HPLC systems, the system parameters, including an ionic z coefficient, were determined. Conversely, the LFER descriptors of 30 ionic liquid cations were determined, based on the parameters of five systems and their retention factors in the HPLC systems. The results showed that the type of head group, alkyl chain length and further substituents of the cation have a significant influence on the dipolarity/polarizability and the hydrogen-bonding acidity, and functionalized groups (hydroxyl, ether, and dimethylamino) lead to hydrogen-bonding basicity of the cation. The characterization of cationic LFER descriptors opens up the chance for a more quantitative understanding of molecular interaction potentials and physicochemical properties of ILs.

Ecotoxicity evaluation of selected sulfonamides.

Sulfonamides (SAs) are a group of antibiotic drugs widely used in veterinary medicine. The contamination of the environment by these pharmaceuticals has raised concern in recent years. However, knowledge of their (eco)toxicity is still very basic and is restricted to just a few of these substances. Even though their toxicological analysis has been thoroughly performed and ecotoxicological data are available in the literature, a systematic analysis of their ecotoxicological potential has yet to be carried out. To fill this gap, 12 different SAs were chosen for detailed analysis with the focus on different bacteria as well as non-target organisms (algae and plants). A flexible (eco)toxicological test battery was used, including enzymes (acetylcholinesterase and glutathione reductase), luminescent marine bacteria (Vibrio fischeri), soil bacteria (Arthrobacter globiformis), limnic unicellular green algae (Scenedesmus vacuolatus) and duckweed (Lemna minor), in order to take into account both the aquatic and terrestrial compartments of the environment, as well as different trophic levels. It was found that SAs are not only toxic towards green algae (EC50=1.54-32.25 mg L⁻¹) but have even stronger adverse effect on duckweed (EC50=0.02-4.89 mg L⁻¹) than atrazine - herbicide (EC50=2.59 mg L⁻¹).

Ionic liquids: predictions of physicochemical properties with experimental and/or DFT-calculated LFER parameters to understand molecular interactions in solution.

In this article, we present evolutionary models to predict the octanol-water partition coefficients (log P), water solubilities, and critical micelle concentrations (CMCs) of ionic liquids (ILs), as well as the anionic activity coefficients and hydrophobicities in pure water and octanol-water. They are based on a polyparameter linear free energy relationship (LFER) using measured and/or DFT-calculated LFER parameters: hydrogen-bonding acidity (A), hydrogen-bonding basicity (B), polarizability/dipolarity (S), excess molar refraction (E), and McGowan volume (V) of IL ions. With both calculated or experimental LFER descriptors of IL ions, the physicochemical parameters were predicted with an errors of 0.182-0.217 for the octanol-water partition coefficient and 0.131-0.166 logarithmic units for the water solubility. Because experimentally determined solute parameters of anions are not currently available, the CMC, anionic activity coefficient, and hydrophobicity were predicted with quantum-chemical methods with R(2) values of at least 0.99, as well as errors below 0.168 logarithmic units. These new approaches will facilitate the assessment of the technical applicability and environmental fate of ionic compounds even before their synthesis.

Permeation through nanochannels: revealing fast kinetics.

The permeation of water soluble molecules across cell membranes is controlled by channel-forming proteins and, in particular, the channel surface determines the selectivity. An adequate method to study the properties of these channels is electrophysiology and, in particular, analyzing the ion current fluctuation in the presence of permeating solutes. Ion current fluctuation analysis provides information on possible interactions of solutes with the channel surface. Due to the limited time resolution, fast permeation events are not visible using standard techniques. Here, we demonstrate that miniaturization of the lipid bilayer; varying the temperature or changing the solvent may enhance the resolution. Although electrophysiology is considered as a single molecule technique, it does not provide atomic resolution. Molecular details of solute permeation can be revealed by combining electrophysiology and all-atom computer modeling; these methods include ion conductance, selectivity, ion pair formation, and rate limiting interactions of the solute with the channel walls during permeation.

Analyzing cytotoxic effects of selected isothiazol-3-one biocides using the toxic ratio concept and structure-activity relationship considerations.

To demonstrate how baseline toxicity can be separated from other more specific modes of toxic action and to address possible pitfals when dealing with hydrophobic substances, the four isothiazol-3-one biocides N-methylisothiazol-3-one (MIT), 5-chloro-N-methylisothiazol-3-one (CIT), N-octylisothiazol-3-one (OIT), and 4,5-dichloro-N-octylisothiazol-3-one (DCOIT) as an example for reactive electrophilic xenobiotics were tested for their cytotoxic effects on the human hepatoblastoma cell line Hep G2, on the marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri, and on the limnic green alga Scenedesmus vacuolatus. In each of the three test systems, toxic effects were observed in a consistent pattern. The two chlorinated compounds and OIT were found to be significantly more toxic than MIT. As compared to baseline toxicants, the small and polar MIT and CIT exhibited pronounced excess toxicity in each of the three test systems that is presumably triggered by their intrinsic reactivity toward cellular thiols. In contrast, OIT and DCOIT showed mainly toxicities that could be explained by their hydrophobicity. Analyzing and comparing these results using the toxic ratio concept and with data that indicate a dramatic depletion of cellular glutathione levels after incubation with DCOIT reveals that for highly hydrophobic substances, baseline level toxicity in an assay for acute toxicity can lead to an oversight of other more specific modes of toxic action that may cause significant effects that might be less reversible than those caused by unreactive baseline toxicants. This possibility should be taken into account in the hazard assessment of chemicals that are both hydrophobic and reactive.

Ionic liquids in soils: effects of different anion species of imidazolium based ionic liquids on wheat (Triticum aestivum) as affected by different clay minerals and clay concentrations.

This study contributes to a prospective hazard assessment of ionic liquids, focusing on the terrestrial environment. The influence of differently composed soils-varying contents of the clay minerals smectite and kaolinite-on the toxicity of different anion species of imidazolium based ionic liquids was studied for growth inhibition of wheat (Triticum aestivum). IM14 (CF(3)SO(2))(2)N appeared the most toxic, independently of the investigated soil type. The toxicity of IM14 Cl, IM14 BF(4) and IM14 HSO(4) was mainly dominated by the cationic moiety. The observed effects varied in dependence of the added clay type and clay concentration. An increase of clay content resulted in less pronounced effects of these substances. In contrast, for IM14 (CF(3)SO(2))(2)N the addition of clay minerals caused higher toxic effects in comparison to the reference soil. Our results give first hints for the assumption, that ionic liquids whose toxic action is based on the anionic moiety are especially hazardous for soils, particular for soils with high clay contents.

Structure-activity relationships for the impact of selected isothiazol-3-one biocides on glutathione metabolism and glutathione reductase of the human liver cell line Hep G2.

To investigate the toxic mode of action of isothiazol-3-one biocides the four compounds N-methylisothiazol-3-one (MIT), 5-chloro-N-methylisothiazol-3-one (CIT), N-octylisothiazol-3-one (OIT) and 4,5-dichloro-N-octylisothiazol-3-one (DCOIT) were purified and tested as single chemical entities for their effects on the human hepatoblastoma cell line Hep G2 and on isolated and cellular glutathione reductase GR). The two chlorinated substances CIT and DCOIT significantly decreased the amount of total cellular glutathione (GSx) in a dose and time dependent manner. Concomitantly, an increase in the level of oxidised glutathione (GSSG) was observed. The resulting shift in the GSH/GSSG ratio entailing the breakdown of the cellular thiol reduction potential was accompanied by necrotic morphological changes like swelling of the plasma membrane and subsequent lysis of the cells. Additionally, CIT and DCOIT were found to inhibit cellular GR in the cells in a concentration dependent manner. The T-SAR-based (thinking in terms of structure-activity relationships) comparison of the chlorine-substituted structures CIT and DCOIT with their non-chlorinated and less active analogues MIT and OIT identified the chlorine substituents and the resulting reaction mechanisms to be the key structural mediators of the observed toxic effects. Furthermore, differences in the activity of both chlorinated substances could be explained using the T-SAR approach to link the lipophilicity and the intrinsic glutathione-reactivity of the compounds to the expected target site concentrations inside the cells.

Lipophilicity parameters for ionic liquid cations and their correlation to in vitro cytotoxicity.

Regarding the great structural variability of the currently expanding group of ionic liquids, it is highly desirable to understand the basic factors affecting their toxicity in different biological systems. The present study of a set of 74 ionic liquids with imidazolium, pyrrolidinium, pyridinium, quinolinium, quaternary phosphonium and quaternary ammonium cations and the comparatively small anions Cl(-), Br(-), BF(4)(-), or PF(6)(-) demonstrates the influence of the cation lipophilicity on the cytotoxicity in IPC-81 leukemia cells from rats. The scope of this correlation is limited to ionic liquids with these or similarly small anions that are sufficiently nonreactive under physiological and chromatographic conditions and whose cation lipophilicity does not exceed a certain threshold.

Zinc homeostasis in C6 glioma cells: phospholipase C activity regulates cellular zinc export.

Zinc homeostasis in mammalian cells is precisely regulated by cellular signal transduction mechanisms. The main result of this study is the finding that modulators of phospholipase C (PLC) activity affect cellular zinc export. Two different PLC inhibitors caused an increase of the total cellular zinc level whereas two different PLC activators caused a decrease. Furthermore, both the inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases as well as the administration of 8-bromo-cAMP evoked a drop in the intracellular zinc level, indicating the involvement of cAMP in the control of cellular zinc export. It is concluded that the activity of PLC controls cellular zinc transport and that the effect of elevated zinc concentrations on PLC activity might be mediated by cAMP. However, modulation of other major signaling enzymes did not affect the cellular zinc homeostasis. These include activation and inhibition of guanylate cyclase, activation of protein kinase G, activation of protein kinase A, and activation or inhibition of protein kinase C. Furthermore there was no evidence for the existence of a zinc-sensing receptor in C6 glioma cells, which would stimulate PLC activity and evoke a mobilization of intracellular free-calcium levels.

S-Nitroso compounds interfere with zinc probing by Zinquin.

The intracellular homeostasis of zinc is postulated to be controlled by signaling through nitric oxide (NO). Administration of the NO donor S-nitrosocysteine (SNOC) caused a rapid drop in the fluorescence of the zinc-specific fluorescence of the zinc probe zinquin in C6 glioma cells. Tentatively, a strong effect of NO on the level of mobile intracellular zinc ions was concluded. However, zinc analysis with atomic absorption spectrometry demonstrated that the total cellular zinc level was not changed under these conditions. Sodium nitrite or an NO donor devoid of sulfhydryl groups (diethylamine NONOate) exerted no degrading effect on the Zn/zinquin fluorescence, but cysteine alone evoked a similar decline as SNOC. Hence, the sulfhydryl groups of cysteine seem to compete for zinc from the Zn/zinquin complex. Analysis of the reaction products by mass spectrometry demonstrated that cysteine caused a depletion of zinc from the Zn/zinquin complex, whereas an NO donor without sulfhydryl groups (diethylamine NONOate) did not. It is concluded that great caution should be employed when using S-nitroso compounds together with zinquin in investigations of intracellular zinc homeostasis.