Electrochromic WO3 thin films attain unprecedented durability by potentiostatic pretreatment.

Electrochromic windows and glass facades are able to impart energy efficiency jointly with indoor comfort and convenience. Long-term durability is essential for practical implementation of this technology and has recently attracted broad interest. Here we show that a simple potentiostatic pretreatment of sputter-deposited thin films of amorphous WO3-the most widely studied electrochromic material-can yield unprecedented durability for charge exchange and optical modulation under harsh electrochemical cycling in a Li-ion-conducting electrolyte and effectively evades harmful trapping of Li. The pretreatment consisted of applying a voltage of 6.0 V vs. Li/Li+ for several hours to a film backed by a transparent conducting In2O3:Sn layer. Associated compositional and structural modifications were probed by several techniques, and improved durability was associated with elemental intermixing at the WO3/ITO and ITO/glass boundaries as well as with carbonaceous solid-electrolyte interfacial layers on the WO3 films. Our work provides important new insights into long-term durability of ion-exchange-based devices.

Electrochemical Rejuvenation of Anodically Coloring Electrochromic Nickel Oxide Thin Films.

Nickel oxide thin films are of major importance as anodically coloring components in electrochromic smart windows with applications in energy-efficient buildings. However, the optical performance of these films degrades upon extended electrochemical cycling, which has hampered their implementation. Here, we use a potentiostatic treatment to rejuvenate degraded nickel oxide thin films immersed in electrolytes of LiClO4 in propylene carbonate. Time-of-flight elastic recoil detection analysis provided unambiguous evidence that both Li+ ions and chlorine-based ions participate in the rejuvenation process. Our work provides new perspectives for developing ion-exchange-based devices embodying nickel oxide.

Galvanostatic Rejuvenation of Electrochromic WO3 Thin Films: Ion Trapping and Detrapping Observed by Optical Measurements and by Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry.

Electrochromic (EC) smart windows are able to decrease our energy footprint while enhancing indoor comfort and convenience. However, the limited durability of these windows, as well as their cost, result in hampered market introduction. Here, we investigate thin films of the most widely studied EC material, WO3. Specifically, we combine optical measurements (using spectrophotometry in conjunction with variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsometry) with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and atomic force microscopy. Data were taken on films in their as-deposited state, after immersion in a Li-ion-conducting electrolyte, after severe degradation by harsh voltammetric cycling and after galvanostatic rejuvenation to regain the original EC performance. Unambiguous evidence was found for the trapping and detrapping of Li ions in the films, along with a thickness increase or decrease during degradation and rejuvenation, respectively. It was discovered that (i) the trapped ions exhibited a depth gradient; (ii) following the rejuvenation procedure, a small fraction of the Li ions remained trapped in the film and gave rise to a weak short-wavelength residual absorption; and (iii) the surface roughness of the film was larger in the degraded state than in its virgin and rejuvenated states. These data provide important insights into the degradation mechanisms of EC devices and into means of achieving improved durability.

Galvanostatic Ion Detrapping Rejuvenates Oxide Thin Films.

Ion trapping under charge insertion-extraction is well-known to degrade the electrochemical performance of oxides. Galvanostatic treatment was recently shown capable to rejuvenate the oxide, but the detailed mechanism remained uncertain. Here we report on amorphous electrochromic (EC) WO3 thin films prepared by sputtering and electrochemically cycled in a lithium-containing electrolyte under conditions leading to severe loss of charge exchange capacity and optical modulation span. Time-of-flight elastic recoil detection analysis (ToF-ERDA) documented pronounced Li(+) trapping associated with the degradation of the EC properties and, importantly, that Li(+) detrapping, caused by a weak constant current drawn through the film for some time, could recover the original EC performance. Thus, ToF-ERDA provided direct and unambiguous evidence for Li(+) detrapping.