Giardia duodenalis in Ugandan Children Aged 9-36 Months in Kampala, Uganda: Prevalence and Associated Factors.

Giardia duodenalis is a common gastrointestinal pathogen globally that has been associated with growth failure in children. Most of the studies have been done in school-age children, and there is a paucity of data in pre-school children. We determined the prevalence and factors associated with G. duodenalis infection in children aged 9-36 months presenting to Mulago Hospital with diarrhea or cough. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics, animal ownership, medical history, and physical examination findings were recorded. Stool was tested for G. duodenalis using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and additional tests included stool microscopy and qPCR for Cryptosporidium. The overall prevalence of G. duodenalis infection was 6.7% (214/3,173). In children with diarrhea the prevalence was 6.9% (133/1,923), whereas it was 6.5% (81/1,250) in those with cough as the main symptom. Of 214 children with G. duodenalis infection, 19 (8.9%) were co-infected with Cryptosporidium. Older children (25-36 months) were more likely to have G. duodenalis infection (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 2.93, 95% CI: 1.93-4.43). Use of an unimproved toilet (aOR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.04-1.83) and the wet season (aOR: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.00-1.77) were associated with increased infection. Other factors associated with infection were recurrent diarrhea (aOR: 2.46, 95% CI: 1.64-3.70) and passing of mucoid stool (aOR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.08-4.66). Having a ruminant at the homestead was also associated with infection (aOR: 1.83, 95% CI: 1.20-2.79). Giardia duodenalis infection occurred in 1 of 15 children aged 9-36 months with diarrhea or cough in Kampala, Uganda. Further studies are needed to clarify the zoonotic significance of G. duodenalis infection in this setting.

Expectoration of Cryptosporidium Parasites in Sputum of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Positive and -Negative Adults.

Respiratory cryptosporidiosis is thought to be a rare, end-stage complication of HIV. Few studies have systematically examined the frequency of such infection in adults. Sputum specimens submitted for tuberculosis (TB) testing at Mulago Hospital, Uganda, were anonymously retested for Cryptosporidium using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Visual confirmation using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy was performed for a subset of PCR-positive samples. Of 824 sputum samples tested, 24 (2.9%) were Cryptosporidium positive. Prevalence in sputum ranged between 0% and 10% in each month of the study and exceeded TB prevalence in some months. In this referral population, respiratory Cryptosporidium prevalence was lower in people with HIV (1.3% versus 4.4% without HIV, P = 0.028) and higher in those with TB (6.8% versus 2.6% without TB, P = 0.086). The weak association between respiratory Cryptosporidium infection and TB persisted after controlling for HIV (odds ratio = 3.2, 95% confidence interval: 0.9, 11.8; P = 0.080). This is the first study to document adult respiratory tract cryptosporidiosis in a referral population with presumed TB. These findings 1) confirm that Cryptosporidium respiratory infection occurs in HIV-negative and -positive adults; 2) suggest there is potential for Cryptosporidium to be disseminated or transmitted by coughing or expectoration; and 3) identify possible synergy between Cryptosporidium and TB in the respiratory tract.