Keel bone fractures affect laying hens' mobility, but no evidence for reciprocal effects.

Keel bone fractures (KBF) are prevalent in commercial laying hens and are considered one of the greatest welfare concerns in the egg-production industry. While clear associations exist between KBF and animal mobility, suggesting that KBF impair mobility, the effect of mobility on KBF remains unclear. We combined data from three studies that assessed keel bone fracture severity through radiographs and monitored hens' transitions between different zones of a multi-tier aviary system (the three tiers, a littered floor, and a winter garden) the week prior to radiograph. For each hen, we extracted two daily movement behaviours: the vertical distance travelled and the mean number of zones crossed within one transition; and two daily space-use behaviours: the time spent in the top tier and the unevenness of time spent across zones. We used hierarchical Bayesian continuous time dynamic modelling to estimate how a change in a behaviour predicted a later change in keel bone fracture severity, and vice versa. Increased fracture severity did not predict later changes in space-use behaviours, but it did predict changes in movement behaviours. Specifically, increased fracture severity led to decreased vertical travelled distance and a tendency to cross more zones within one transition, suggesting impaired mobility in hens with increased fracture severity. In contrast, we found no evidence that movement or space-use behaviours predict later change in fracture severity, challenging previous literature suggesting that vertical locomotion through jumping and flying may exacerbate keel bone fractures in complex three-dimensional systems due to increased risk of collisions. However, similar efforts accounting for the location of fractures on the keel could unveil the potential influence of movement and space-use behaviours in the formation and change (healing or worsening) of KBF and increase our ability to mitigate their effects.

The effect of piling behavior on the production and mortality of free-range laying hens.

Piling, a dense cluster of hens, is a behavior of major concern to the cage-free egg industry. It can cause large numbers of mortalities at which point it is considered smothering. The aim of this study was to quantify whether piling can also have consequences on production and non-smothering mortalities, which have not previously been described. Additionally, we aimed to describe characteristics of piling behavior relevant to for management. Video footage from 12 flocks of laying hens was analyzed for piling behavior across 3 wks. Production and mortality data were accessed using an integrated online management system. Bayesian linear mixed-effect models were used for formal statistical testing of the relationships between piling and production. Accounting for some missing data, a total of 252 d amounting to approximately 15,624 h were analyzed for the presence or absence of piling behavior, which we believe constitutes the largest analysis of piling behavior in the scientific literature to date. All flocks observed exhibited piling behavior even if they had no history of smothering. On average, flocks piled more than 4 times per day for around 44 min per event and the peak piling time occurred between 1300 and 1359. We found that the number of piling events was associated with a reduction in the number of eggs produced the next day; based on the average of 4 piles per day this amounted to 7.35 fewer eggs per 1,000 birds per day. Contrary to our hypothesis, we found total piling duration per day was positively associated with fewer Grade B eggs, with a decrease of 0.74 Grade B eggs for every hour of piling per day. No relationship was observed between piling and mortality not attributed to smothering. We discuss possible causes and explanations for these results including birds' response to stress, crowd dynamics, and daily rhythms. Here we show the potential for piling behavior to have sublethal consequences on production even in the absence of smothering-related deaths.

Early locomotor activity in broilers and the relationship with body weight gain.

Fast-growing broilers are relatively inactive and this is thought to be a result of selection for high growth rates. This reduced activity level is considered a major cause of leg weakness and associated leg health problems. Increased activity, especially early in life, is suggested to have positive effects on leg health, but the relationship between early activity and growth is unclear. A clearer understanding of the relationship between activity early in life and body weight gain could help determine how selecting on increased early activity could affect body weight gain in broilers. Here, a radio frequency identification (RFID) tracking system was implemented to record daily individual broiler activity throughout life, in 5 production rounds. As mean activity levels alone do not capture the variation in activity over time, multiple (dynamic) descriptors of activity were determined based on the individual birds' daily distances moved, focusing on the period from 0 to 15 days old. The mean, skewness, root mean square error (RMSE), autocorrelation, and entropy of (deviations in) activity were determined at the individual level, as well as the average daily gain (ADG). Relationships between activity descriptors and ADG were determined for 318 birds. Both when combining the data from the different production rounds and when taking production round and start weight into account, a negative relationship between ADG and RMSE was observed, indicating that birds that were more variable in their activity levels had a lower ADG. However, the activity descriptors, in combination with recording round and start weight, explained only a small part (8%) of the variation in ADG. Therefore, it is recommended for future research to also record other factors affecting ADG (e.g., type of feed provided and feed intake) and to model growth curves. Overall, this study suggests that increasing early activity does not necessarily negatively affect body weight gain. This could contribute to improved broiler health and welfare if selecting for increased activity has the expected positive effects on leg health.

Extreme crowding in laying hens during a recurrent smothering outbreak.

BACKGROUND: Piling, a behaviour where hens crowd together, is referred to as smothering if mortalities result. Smothering is a considerable concern for the egg industry, yet is vastly understudied. METHODS: During an outbreak of recurrent smothering, continuous video footage captured a commercial, free-range flock over 35 days. We describe the piling behaviour observed and potential associations with productivity and flock health indicators. RESULTS: Forty-eight piles were filmed, with a maximum density of 187.93 birds/m2 and up to 1204 birds in one pile. Piling occurred in the same house location on 33 of 34 observation days, the first evidence of regularity in piling behaviour. Despite extreme bird densities, we did not find associations between piling extremity and productivity but did find associations with water:feed ratio and temperature range. CONCLUSION: This study describes the most extreme level of piling reported in literature and offers new insights into this problem behaviour and its consequences.

Concurrent and Predictive Criterion Validity of a Puppy Behaviour Questionnaire for Predicting Training Outcome in Juvenile Guide Dogs.

Working dog organisations regularly assess the behaviour of puppies to monitor progression. Here, we tested the predictive validity (for predicting success in guide dog training) of a shortened version of a previously developed juvenile dog behaviour questionnaire (the refined puppy walker questionnaire, r-PWQ) and compared it with the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). The r-PWQ is used by Guide Dogs UK, whereas the C-BARQ was designed for pet dogs and is used by some other guide dog schools internationally. A cohort of dogs aged eight months (n = 359) were scored concurrently on the r-PWQ and C-BARQ. Analogous traits between the questionnaires were evaluated for internal consistency and association with training outcome and compared for concurrent validity. The r-PWQ was associated with training outcome for five scales (r-Excitability, Trainability, Animal Chase, r-Attachment and attention seeking and Distractibility) and the C-BARQ for two scales (Excitability and Separation-related behaviour). There were significant correlations between analogous C-BARQ and r-PWQ trait scores (p < 0.001) except for Separation-related behaviour and questionnaire scales had similar internal consistencies. The r-PWQ may be more suitable to use with guide dog schools. However, due to the correlation between analogous scales (except for "Distractibility") some scales could be substituted for one another when reviewing the behaviour of dogs between guide dog schools using different questionnaires.

Why Do Hens Pile? Hypothesizing the Causes and Consequences.

Piling is a behavior in laying hens whereby individuals aggregate in larger densities than would be normally expected. When piling behavior leads to mortalities it is known as smothering and its frequent but unpredictable occurrence is a major concern for many egg producers. There are generally considered to be three types of piling: panic, nest box and recurring piling. Whilst nest box and panic piling have apparent triggers, recurring piling does not, making it an enigmatic and ethologically intriguing behavior. The repetitive nature of recurring piling may result in a higher incidence of smothering and could have unconsidered, sub-lethal consequences. Here, we consider the possible causes of recurring piling from an ethological perspective and outline the potential welfare and production consequences. Drawing on a wide range of literature, we consider different timescales of causes from immediate triggers to ontogeny and domestication processes, and finally consider the evolution of collective behavior. By considering different timescales of influence, we built four hypotheses relevant to the causes of piling, which state that the behavior: (i) is caused by hens moving toward or away from an attractant/repellent; (ii) is socially influenced; (iii) is influenced by early life experiences and; (iv) can be described as a maladaptive collective behavior. We further propose that the following could be welfare consequences of piling behavior: Heat stress, physical injury (such as keel bone damage), and behavioral and physiological stress effects. Production consequences include direct and indirect mortality (smothering and knock-on effects of piling, respectively), potential negative impacts on egg quality and on worker welfare. In future studies the causes of piling and smothering should be considered according to the different timescales on which causes might occur. Here, both epidemiological and modeling approaches could support further study of piling behavior, where empirical studies can be challenging.

The effect of supplementary ultraviolet wavelengths on the performance of broiler chickens.

Qualities of the light environment, such as the spectral composition of light, have been shown to impact growth and performance of broiler chickens. UVA light is visible to broiler chickens, whereas UVB wavelengths promote endogenous vitamin D synthesis, which could support their rapid development. The aim of the current study was to investigate the impacts of supplementary UVA and UVB wavelengths on performance indicators of broiler chickens. Day-old Ross 308 chicks (n = 638), reared to a target stocking density of 33 kg/m2, were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 lighting treatments: A) White light emitting diode (LED) and supplementary UVA LED lighting (18-h photoperiod); B) White LED with supplementary UVA and UVB fluorescent lighting providing 30 µW/cm2 UVB at bird level (lights on for 8 h of the total photoperiod to avoid overexposure of UVB); and C) White LED control group, representative of farm conditions (18-h photoperiod). Mortality was recorded, and broiler chickens were individually weighed at 8, 15, 22, 27, and 34 D of age. Generalized linear models and nonlinear mixed effects models (Gompertz curve) were fitted to determine the effects of UV wavelengths on broiler mortality and growth performance. UV did not impact breast or leg weight of broiler chickens but was associated with differences in mortality, growth, and end weight. Broiler chickens provided with UVA for the full 18-h photoperiod had slower initial growth than control broilers and a reduction in mortality. Results from male broilers reared with supplementary UVA + UVB for 8 h indicated they could reach finishing weights sooner than controls, which supports the potential for UVA + B to improve the growth performance of males. Results suggest that the provision of supplementary UVA + UVB wavelengths may improve the performance of male broiler chickens. The reduction in mortality in the UVA only treatment may warrant further investigation. The inclusion of UV wavelengths within poultry lighting regimes represents a promising area of further study.

Could it be osteoarthritis? How dog owners and veterinary surgeons describe identifying canine osteoarthritis in a general practice setting.

Canine osteoarthritis is a common, painful condition that is typically managed in a general practice setting. Osteoarthritis may have significant negative impacts on the welfare of both dogs and their owners. Anticipated early clinical signs of canine osteoarthritis and the preferred route to its diagnosis are well described by veterinary subject experts in published literature. However, little is known about changes owners first recognise in a dog ultimately diagnosed with osteoarthritis, how they make decisions about when to present that dog to a general practitioner, or whether the described diagnostic pathways are followed by general practitioners. The aim of this research was to investigate how dog owners and veterinary surgeons describe identifying and diagnosing canine osteoarthritis. Owners of osteoarthritic dogs were recruited for semi-structured interview, and veterinary surgeons working in general practice were invited to take part in practice-based focus groups. Transcripts from both datasets were thematically analysed using a contextualist epistemology with an ontology based on critical realism to construct convergent themes from latent and semantic codes. Thirty-two interviews were completed with 40 owners from 32 households who discussed 35 dogs with osteoarthritis, and 26 veterinary surgeons engaged in four practice-based focus groups. Owners described identifying a wide range of acute and chronic, typically subtle and intermittent, behavioural and demeanour changes prior to their dogs' osteoarthritis diagnosis. Few attributed these changes to canine osteoarthritis, and some waited many months before presenting their dog to a veterinary practice. Veterinary surgeons described a consistent 'typical osteoarthritis' presentation that they recognised through history taking and clinical examination. Their diagnostic work-up rarely followed that advocated by subject experts for reasons including lack of time and perceptions that it would not change the outcome. Many veterinary surgeons described frustration that some owners did not accept their recommendations to provide analgesia for affected dogs. Short consultation lengths, poor awareness of owner knowledge levels, and lack of recognition of the importance of owners' prior knowledge, beliefs and assumptions may contribute to these consultations being perceived as challenging by some veterinary surgeons and owners. This research demonstrates that veterinary surgeons and owners want dogs with clinical signs of osteoarthritis to be happy and comfortable, but that ineffective communication and lack of trust in the consulting room may be a barrier. Our data identifies many new avenues for future research and improved communication strategies that could facilitate earlier identification and treatment of canine osteoarthritis in general practice.

Doing nothing and what it looks like: inactivity in fattening cattle.

BACKGROUND: Animals kept in barren environments often show increased levels of inactivity and first studies indicate that inactive behaviour may reflect boredom or depression-like states. However, to date, knowledge of what inactivity looks like in different species is scarce and methods to precisely describe and analyse inactive behaviour are thus warranted. METHODS: We developed an Inactivity Ethogram including detailed information on the postures of different body parts (Standing/Lying, Head, Ears, Eyes, Tail) for fattening cattle, a farm animal category often kept in barren environments. The Inactivity Ethogram was applied to Austrian Fleckvieh heifers kept in intensive, semi-intensive and pasture-based husbandry systems to record inactive behaviour in a range of different contexts. Three farms per husbandry system were visited twice; once in the morning and once in the afternoon to cover most of the daylight hours. During each visit, 16 focal animals were continuously observed for 15 minutes each (96 heifers per husbandry system, 288 in total). Moreover, the focal animals' groups were video recorded to later determine inactivity on the group level. Since our study was explorative in nature, we refrained from statistical hypothesis testing, but analysed both the individual- and group-level data descriptively. Moreover, simultaneous occurrences of postures of different body parts (Standing/Lying, Head, Ears and Eyes) were analysed using the machine learning algorithm cspade to provide insight into co-occurring postures of inactivity. RESULTS: Inspection of graphs indicated that with increasing intensity of the husbandry system, more animals were inactive (group-level data) and the time the focal animals were inactive increased (individual-level data). Frequently co-occurring postures were generally similar between husbandry systems, but with subtle differences. The most frequently observed combination on farms with intensive and semi-intensive systems was lying with head up, ears backwards and eyes open whereas on pasture it was standing with head up, ears forwards and eyes open. CONCLUSION: Our study is the first to explore inactive behaviour in cattle by applying a detailed description of postures from an Inactivity Ethogram and by using the machine learning algorithm cspade to identify frequently co-occurring posture combinations. Both the ethogram created in this study and the cspade algorithm may be valuable tools in future studies aiming to better understand different forms of inactivity and how they are associated with different affective states.

Spectral entropy of early-life distress calls as an iceberg indicator of chicken welfare.

Chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) make a repetitive, high energy 'distress' call when stressed. Distress calls are a catch-all response to a range of environmental stressors, and elicit food calling and brooding from hens. Pharmacological and behavioural laboratory studies link expression of this call with negative affective state. As such, there is an a priori expectation that distress calls on farms indicate not only physical, but emotional welfare. Using whole-house recordings on 12 commercial broiler flocks (n = 25 090-26 510/flock), we show that early life (day 1-4 of placement) distress call rate can be simply and linearly estimated using a single acoustic parameter: spectral entropy. After filtering to remove low-frequency machinery noise, spectral entropy per minute of recording had a correlation of -0.88 with a manual distress call count. In videos collected on days 1-3, age-specific behavioural correlates of distress calling were identified: calling was prevalent (spectral entropy low) when foraging/drinking were high on day 1, but when chicks exhibited thermoregulatory behaviours or were behaviourally asynchronous thereafter. Crucially, spectral entropy was predictive of important commercial and welfare-relevant measures: low median daily spectral entropy predicted low weight gain and high mortality, not only into the next day, but towards the end of production. Further research is required to identify what triggers, and thus could alleviate, distress calling in broiler chicks. However, within the field of precision livestock farming, this work shows the potential for simple descriptors of the overall acoustic environment to be a novel, tractable and real-time 'iceberg indicator' of current and future welfare.

"You can be blind because of loving them so much": the impact on owners in the United Kingdom of living with a dog with osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND: There is growing awareness that caring for a chronically ill pet may have a detrimental impact on their owner's quality of life. Companion animal orthopaedic disease has received little research interest in this context. Canine osteoarthritis is known to negatively affect the welfare of many dogs in the United Kingdom, but its consequences for their owners has not previously been described. The aim of this study was to use a qualitative methodology to explore the impacts on a dog owner that occur following their dog's diagnosis with osteoarthritis. Owners of osteoarthritic dogs based in the United Kingdom (UK) were recruited through veterinary practices to participate in semi-structured interview about life with their dog. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis was used to construct key themes. This publication describes the theme that focused on the impact(s) that the dog's condition had had on the life of their owner. RESULTS: Forty owners of 35 dogs of a range of breeds and ages were interviewed. A wide range of negative impacts on the physical, mental and financial health of owners were described. Few had any prior experience of canine osteoarthritis, and owners of young dogs appeared to be particularly affected by the diagnosis. Owners detailed increasing worry over time about their pet's condition, frequently combined with a growing need to physically assist their dog. Sometimes this led them to seek information about, and purchase, adjunctive therapies and products. The dog's reduced mobility and need for medications progressively limited their own lifestyles and ability to have time away from their pet. Owners typically described a strong bond with their dog as a motivator to provide ongoing care. CONCLUSIONS: The negative impacts on owners of caring for an osteoarthritic dog appear multi-faceted and may be sustained over many years, particularly if the dog is young at diagnosis. Owners may be highly motivated to improve their dog's mobility and to reduce the impact the condition has on their own lives, yet they may be unsure how to achieve this. Veterinary professionals should inform and support these owners as much as possible.

Teenage dogs? Evidence for adolescent-phase conflict behaviour and an association between attachment to humans and pubertal timing in the domestic dog.

The relationship between parent and child changes around adolescence, with children believed to have: (i) an earlier puberty if they have less secure attachments to their carer; (ii) a phase of increased conflict behaviour toward their carer; and (iii) heightened conflict behaviour when carer attachments are less secure. We find support for analogous associations in adolescent dogs based on behaviour and reproductive timing of potential guide dogs. Bitches with behaviour indicative of insecure attachments pre-adolescence became reproductively capable earlier. Providing the first empirical evidence to our knowledge in support of adolescent-phase behaviour in dogs, we found a passing phase of carer-specific conflict-like behaviour during adolescence (reduced trainability and responsiveness to commands), an effect that was more pronounced in dogs with behaviour indicative of less secure attachments. These results indicate a possibility for cross-species influence on reproductive development and highlight adolescence as a vulnerable time for dog-owner relationships.

Investigating the potential for seizure prediction in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy: owner-reported prodromal changes and seizure triggers.

BACKGROUND: Canine idiopathic epilepsy (IE) is characterised by recurrent seizure activity, which can appear unpredictable and uncontrollable. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential for seizure prediction in dogs by exploring owner-perceived seizure prediction abilities and identifying owner-reported prodromal changes (long-term changes in disposition that indicate forthcoming seizures) and seizure triggers (stimuli that precipitate seizures) in dogs with IE. METHODS: This is an online, international, cross-sectional survey of 229 owners of dogs diagnosed with IE, meeting the International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force tier I diagnostic criteria. RESULTS: Over half (59.6 per cent) of owners believed they were able to predict an upcoming seizure in their dog, of whom nearly half (45.5 per cent) were able to do so at least 30 minutes before the seizure commenced. The most common 'seizure predictors' were preseizure behavioural changes including increased clinginess (25.4 per cent), restlessness (23.1 per cent) and fearful behaviour (19.4 per cent). Nearly two-thirds of owners reported prodromal changes (64.9 per cent), most commonly restlessness (29.2 per cent), and nearly half (43.1 per cent) reported seizure triggers, most commonly stress (39.1 per cent). CONCLUSIONS: The relatively high prevalence of owner-reported prodromal changes and seizure triggers shows promise for utilising these methods to aid seizure prediction in dogs, which could open a window of time for pre-emptive, individualised drug interventions to abort impending seizure activity.

Parallels in the interactive effect of highly sensitive personality and social factors on behaviour problems in dogs and humans.

Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a personality trait in humans characterised by a tendency to process information deeply, to be easily overstimulated, and to have strong emotional responses and an enhanced sensitivity to subtle stimuli. A trait similar to SPS has recently been identified in dogs ("canine Sensory Processing Sensitivity", cSPS). In children, this trait interacts with parenting factors to influence emotional and mental development, which in turn are linked to behaviour problems. Paralleling these findings in humans, we demonstrate that cSPS interacts with owner personality and use of aversive communication to influence the likelihood of behaviour problems in dogs. More behaviour problems were reported for more highly sensitive dogs per se, when there was a relative mismatch between owner and dog personality, and when use of "negative punishment" was reported. These findings indicate that a dog's personality might moderate how an individual is affected by environmental factors, particularly owner personality and communication style, emphasising the importance of considering individuality in prevention, development and treatment of behaviour problems in dogs.

Slower, shorter, sadder: a qualitative study exploring how dog walks change when the canine participant develops osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND: Dog walking may have multiple physical and mental health advantages, but not all dog owners appear to benefit. Dog health is a described barrier to dog walking activity, but specific causes and impacts of reduced exercise in owners of dogs with health problems have not previously been reported. The current study used a qualitative methodology to explore the impact of canine osteoarthritis on dog walking activity. METHODS: Owners of dogs with osteoarthritis living in the United Kingdom (UK) were recruited through veterinary practices for semi-structured interview about life with an osteoarthritic dog. Participants were asked to reflect on walks that they had taken with their dog before he/she developed osteoarthritis, and to describe how those walks had changed. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis was used to construct key themes. RESULTS: Forty owners of 35 osteoarthritic dogs were interviewed. Prior to their dog's development of osteoarthritis, dog walking distance, speed and location were usually decided by the owner to satisfy the needs and enjoyment of dog and walker. A diagnosis of canine osteoarthritis led to both dogs and their owners altering the walks undertaken. Walks were typically slower, shorter and limited to locations where physical infrastructure, underfoot surface and gradients were perceived by the owner to be navigable by their dog. Most owners did not go on additional walks without their dog due to feelings of guilt and because walking without a dog was less enjoyable. Many owners described negative effects on their own physical health and diminished enjoyment of walking as a result of their dog's condition. CONCLUSION: Our research suggests that osteoarthritic dogs may reduce the walking exercise their owners are able or willing to undertake. Since osteoarthritis is a common condition in older dogs, this is an important finding for those advocating dog ownership as a positive public health intervention. Strategies may be needed to ensure that owners of dogs that develop physical incapacities can continue to enjoy the health benefits they previously associated with dog walking. Future studies investigating dog walking activity should ensure that the health status of the dog has been considered.

Positive and negative contexts predict duration of pig vocalisations.

Emotions are mental states occurring in response to external and internal stimuli and thus form an integral part of an animal's behaviour. Emotions can be mapped in two dimensions based on their arousal and valence. Whilst good indicators of arousal exist, clear indicators of emotional valence, particularly positive valence, are still rare. However, positively valenced emotions may play a crucial role in social interactions in many species and thus, an understanding of how emotional valence is expressed is needed. Vocalisations are a potential indicator of emotional valence as they can reflect the internal state of the caller. We experimentally manipulated valence, using positive and negative cognitive bias trials, to quantify changes in pig vocalisations. We found that grunts were shorter in positive trials than in negative trials. Interestingly, we did not find differences in the other measured acoustic parameters between the positive and negative contexts as reported in previous studies. These differences in results suggest that acoustic parameters may differ in their sensitivity as indicators of emotial valence. However, it is important to understand how similar contexts are, in terms of their valence, to be able to fully understand how and when acoustic parameters reflect emotional states.

Development of a behavioural welfare assessment tool for routine use with captive elephants.

There has been much concern in recent years about the welfare of elephants in zoos across North America and Europe. While some previous studies have assessed captive elephant welfare at a particular point in time, there has been little work to develop methods which could be used for regular, routine welfare assessment. Such assessment is important in order to track changes in welfare over time. A welfare assessment tool should be rapid, reliable, and simple to complete, without requiring specialist training and facilities; welfare assessments based on behavioural observations are well suited to this purpose. This report describes the development of a new elephant behavioural welfare assessment tool designed for routine use by elephant keepers. Tool development involved: (i) identification of behavioural indicators of welfare from the literature and from focus groups with relevant stakeholders; (ii) development of a prototype tool; (iii) testing of the tool at five UK zoological institutions, involving 29 elephants (representing 46% of the total UK captive elephant population of 63 animals); (iv) assessment of feasibility and reliability of aspects of the prototype tool; (v) assessment of the validity of each element of the tool to reflect the relevant behaviour by comparing detailed behavioural observations with data from the prototype tool; (vi) assessment of known-groups criterion validity by comparing prototype tool scores in individuals with demographics associated with better or worse welfare; (vii) development of a finalised tool which incorporated all elements of the tool which met the criteria set for validity and reliability. Elements of the tool requiring further consideration are discussed, as are considerations for appropriate application and interpretation of scores. This novel behavioural welfare assessment tool can be used by elephant-holding facilities for routine behavioural welfare monitoring, which can inform adjustments to individual welfare plans for each elephant in their collection, to help facilities further assess and improve captive elephant welfare. This study provides an example of how an evidence-based behavioural welfare assessment tool for use by animal caretakers can be developed within the constraints of zoo-based research, which could be applied to a range of captive species.

The effect of supplementary ultraviolet wavelengths on broiler chicken welfare indicators.

Qualities of the light environment are important for good welfare in a number of species. In chickens, UVA light is visible and may facilitate flock interactions. UVB wavelengths promote endogenous vitamin D synthesis, which could support the rapid skeletal development of broiler chickens. The aim of the study was to investigate the impacts of Ultraviolet wavelengths (UV) on welfare indicators in broiler chickens. Day-old Ross 308 birds reared under commercially representative conditions were randomly assigned to one of three lighting treatments: A) White Light Emitting Diode (LED) and supplementary UVA LED lighting (18-hour photoperiod); B) White LED with supplementary UVA and UVB fluorescent lighting providing 30 micro watts/cm2 UVB at bird level (on for 8 h of the total photoperiod to avoid over-exposure of UVB); C) White LED control group, representative of farm conditions (18-hour photoperiod). Welfare indicators measured were; feather condition (day 24, n = 546), tonic immobility duration (day 29, n = 302), and gait quality, using the Bristol Gait Score (day 31, n = 293). Feather condition was improved in male broilers in the UVA treatment (A), compared to the control treatment (C). Birds in the UVA treatment had shorter tonic immobility durations compared to the control treatment (C), suggesting lower fearfulness. Broilers reared in UVA (A) and UVA + UVB (B) had better Bristol Gait Scores compared to the control (C). Together these results suggest UV may be beneficial for broiler chicken welfare. While treatment A and B both provided UVA, the improvements in welfare indicators were not consistent, which may be due to exposure time-dependent beneficial effects of UVA. The modification of commercial lighting regimes to incorporate UVA wavelengths for indoor-reared broiler chickens would be an achievable change with significant positive impacts on bird welfare.

Application of Survival Analysis and Multistate Modeling to Understand Animal Behavior: Examples from Guide Dogs.

Epidemiology is the study of patterns of health-related states or events in populations. Statistical models developed for epidemiology could be usefully applied to behavioral states or events. The aim of this study is to present the application of epidemiological statistics to understand animal behavior where discrete outcomes are of interest, using data from guide dogs to illustrate. Specifically, survival analysis and multistate modeling are applied to data on guide dogs comparing dogs that completed training and qualified as a guide dog, to those that were withdrawn from the training program. Survival analysis allows the time to (or between) a binary event(s) and the probability of the event occurring at or beyond a specified time point. Survival analysis, using a Cox proportional hazards model, was used to examine the time taken to withdraw a dog from training. Sex, breed, and other factors affected time to withdrawal. Bitches were withdrawn faster than dogs, Labradors were withdrawn faster, and Labrador × Golden Retrievers slower, than Golden Retriever × Labradors; and dogs not bred by Guide Dogs were withdrawn faster than those bred by Guide Dogs. Multistate modeling (MSM) can be used as an extension of survival analysis to incorporate more than two discrete events or states. Multistate models were used to investigate transitions between states of training to qualification as a guide dog or behavioral withdrawal, and from qualification as a guide dog to behavioral withdrawal. Sex, breed (with purebred Labradors and Golden retrievers differing from F1 crosses), and bred by Guide Dogs or not, effected movements between states. We postulate that survival analysis and MSM could be applied to a wide range of behavioral data and key examples are provided.

An evidence-based decision assistance model for predicting training outcome in juvenile guide dogs.

Working dog organisations, such as Guide Dogs, need to regularly assess the behaviour of the dogs they train. In this study we developed a questionnaire-style behaviour assessment completed by training supervisors of juvenile guide dogs aged 5, 8 and 12 months old (n = 1,401), and evaluated aspects of its reliability and validity. Specifically, internal reliability, temporal consistency, construct validity, predictive criterion validity (comparing against later training outcome) and concurrent criterion validity (comparing against a standardised behaviour test) were evaluated. Thirty-nine questions were sourced either from previously published literature or created to meet requirements identified via Guide Dogs staff surveys and staff feedback. Internal reliability analyses revealed seven reliable and interpretable trait scales named according to the questions within them as: Adaptability; Body Sensitivity; Distractibility; Excitability; General Anxiety; Trainability and Stair Anxiety. Intra-individual temporal consistency of the scale scores between 5-8, 8-12 and 5-12 months was high. All scales excepting Body Sensitivity showed some degree of concurrent criterion validity. Predictive criterion validity was supported for all seven scales, since associations were found with training outcome, at at-least one age. Thresholds of z-scores on the scales were identified that were able to distinguish later training outcome by identifying 8.4% of all dogs withdrawn for behaviour and 8.5% of all qualified dogs, with 84% and 85% specificity. The questionnaire assessment was reliable and could detect traits that are consistent within individuals over time, despite juvenile dogs undergoing development during the study period. By applying thresholds to scores produced from the questionnaire this assessment could prove to be a highly valuable decision-making tool for Guide Dogs. This is the first questionnaire-style assessment of juvenile dogs that has shown value in predicting the training outcome of individual working dogs.