Analysis of vaccine-virus-associated rabies cases in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) after oral rabies vaccination campaigns in Germany and Austria.

To eradicate rabies in foxes, almost 97 million oral rabies vaccine baits have been distributed in Germany and Austria since 1983 and 1986, respectively. Since 2007, no terrestrial cases have been reported in either country. The most widely used oral rabies vaccine viruses in these countries were SAD (Street Alabama Dufferin) strains, e.g. SAD B19 (53.2%) and SAD P5/88 (44.5%). In this paper, we describe six possible vaccine-virus-associated rabies cases in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) detected during post-vaccination surveillance from 2001 to 2006, involving two different vaccines and different batches. Compared to prototypic vaccine strains, full-genome sequencing revealed between 1 and 5 single nucleotide alterations in the L gene in 5 of 6 SAD isolates, resulting in up to two amino acid substitutions. However, experimental infection of juvenile foxes showed that those mutations had no influence on pathogenicity. The cases described here, coming from geographically widely separated regions, do not represent a spatial cluster. More importantly, enhanced surveillance showed that the vaccine viruses involved did not become established in the red fox population. It seems that the number of reported vaccine virus-associated rabies cases is determined predominantly by the intensity of surveillance after the oral rabies vaccination campaign and not by the selection of strains.

The financial challenge of keeping a large region rabies-free--the EU example.

Following the implementation of oral rabies vaccination of foxes (ORV) in Western Europe, a continuous decrease in rabies incidence was reported, and eventually rabies was eliminated. Once fox rabies is eliminated in a given area, re-infection from neighbouring infected countries is a permanent threat. As a result, countries need to maintain a vaccination belt along common borders until rabies is also eliminated in sufficiently large border regions of neighbouring infected countries. In a theoretical approach EU member states were taken as a prime example, assuming that they were rabies-free but that neighbouring countries were still infected. Using GIS, a 50 km deep vaccination belt beyond the front of the rabies endemic zone was installed in countries bordering those regions. The annual cost for the prevention of re-infection of the EU territory was calculated considering current EU recommendations (vaccination twice per year, aerial and complementary hand distribution, bait density of 30 baits per km2). Minimum and maximum prices for commercial available oral rabies vaccine baits, aircraft and rabies surveillance were considered for the calculation of costs. The total vaccination area which needed to be established was about 251,000 km2. Using mainly fixed-wing aircraft, the annual cost for ORV including rabies surveillance varied between a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 16M Euro, depending on the cost of vaccine bait. If helicopters were used exclusively, the maximum cost increased to about 32M Euro. Depending on the length of the border to infected regions, countries will have to pay up to 25% of the total cost. Countries which need to install a vaccination belt will never have a rabies-free status because of the likely occurrence of rabies cases in border zones.

Epidemiological analysis of setbacks in oral vaccination in the final stage of fox rabies elimination in densely populated areas in Germany.

Despite a long history of oral vaccination of foxes (OVF) against rabies, in a few restricted areas of Germany rabies is still endemic, posing a continuous risk of re-introduction of rabies into adjacent, rabies-free areas. The endemic area is characterized by a high density population. It is hypothesized that the degree of urbanization in the area under consideration influences the number of rabies cases via the mode of bait distribution. In urban areas vaccine baits are distributed by hand, whereas in non-urban areas baits can be distributed aerially with the help of fixed-winged aircraft. Statistical analysis of the effect of the mode of bait distribution upon the number of rabies cases shows a significant influence. In areas where baits are distributed by hand the number of rabies cases is significantly higher than the expected number. This finding forces managers to reassess the procedure of bait distribution by hand in urban areas, taking into account the ecologically and biologically different dynamics of urban fox populations. If the oral vaccination of foxes in urban areas can be refined, rabies eradication in Germany is expected to succeed in due course.

Eradication of Aujeszky's disease in Germany.

Aujeszky's disease (AD) manifested itself in both German states in 1960. Owing to the historical development, in the subsequent two decades, the development of the disease and of its control in the Western and Eastern parts of Germany went different ways. This article describes differences and particularities in the development of AD in Germany leading to the establishment of a national AD eradication programme after re-unification of the two German states at the beginning of the last decade. The basic principles of the German AD eradication programme are described, and the results of 10 years of efforts to control the disease are presented and discussed. Without any doubt, as in other European countries, implementation of the national eradication programme resulted in a considerable progress in the eradication of AD. Since the eradication programme has been established in 1989, particularly in West Germany, the number of AD outbreaks has decreased steadily from about 2000 cases in 1987 to 0 cases recorded in 2001. Recently, Germany has been declared as officially AD-free by the European Commission.

[Significant contagious diseases which spread primarily through livestock trade and products of animal origin]. / Ubersicht über bedeutsame Seuchen, die vorrangig durch Tierverkehr und Erzeugnisse tierischen Ursprungs verbreitet werden.

Against the background of the certification system based on trust, an overview is given of the risk potential posed by the introduction of major animal diseases using tables setting out live animals and livestock products moved and/or imported into Germany as well as maps on the global occurrence of selected diseases figuring on List A of O.I.E.

[Persistence of FDMV and its effects on disease control strategies]. / Die Persistenz des MKS-Virus und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Bekämpfungsstrategie.

It is well-known that foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes a persistent infection, lasting for more than 28 days, in cattle, sheep, goat as well as some other ruminant species, but not in pigs. Although convincing evidence for virus transmission is missing, these carrier animals have to be considered as a potential risk of infection. Some aspects of FMDV persistence are presented and discussed with regard to disease control strategies.

[Perspectives on fair legislation for the assurance of animal health in the countries of the European Union]. / Perspektiven der rechtlichen Regelung für die Sicherung der Tiergesundheit in den Ländern der Europäischen Union.

The paper provides an overview of Community legislation on the safeguarding of animal health and comments on topical amendments that are being discussed. Special attention is given to the amendment of Directive 64/432/EEC the content of which can be summarised as follows: 1. More stringent requirements for intra-Community-and from a date to be fixed-national trade in bovine animals for breeding and production. Approval of farms of origin shall be mandatory. Holdings are approved only if they participate in the epidemiological monitoring system agreed in the council. This means that the farm is regularly controlled by the "responsible veterinary surgeon" (= veterinary practitioner). 2. More stringent requirements for the intra-Community trade in pigs for breeding and production. The approval of farms and thus their participation in the monitoring systems shall be compulsory in the case, too. 3. Inclusion of carcass disposal plants in the system of epidemiological monitoring through the introduction of a mandatory reporting system if larger numbers of dead animals are removed. 4. More stringent hygiene requirements for all cattle and pig transports.

[Amino acid metabolism by thin layer chromatography for the differentiation of Bordetella and Alcaligenes species]. / Untersuchungen des Aminosäurestoffwechsels mit der Dünnschichtchromatographie zur Differenzierung von Bordetellen- und Alcaligenes-Spezies.

The amino acid metabolism of Bordetella and Alcaligenes strains was investigated for differentiation purposes. All species investigated reacted differently with a number of amino acids. The genus Bordetella could be differentiated from that of Alcaligenes by its inability to metabolize L-lysine, L-arginine and D-histidine. The recently described species Bordetella avium, as well as Achromobacter xylosoxidans (Yabuuchi), considered as Alcaligenes denitrificans subsp. xylosoxidans, presented themselves as independent species too. Bordetella odorans, now assigned to the species Alcaligenes faecalis was indistinguishable from the other strains of Alcaligenes faecalis investigated.