Computational Methods for analysis of foci: validation for radiation-induced gamma-H2AX foci in human cells.

Observation and counting of gamma-H2AX foci in untreated cells as well as in cells exposed to cytotoxic agents is a widely used method for documenting the presence of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in the DNA and for analysis of their repair. Similar methods are employed to analyze formation of foci by a variety of proteins implicated in the cellular responses to DNA damage. Despite the wide application of the approach, the manual counting that is frequently used is prone to inaccuracies and investigator-related biases and artifacts. To alleviate this limitation, we developed and describe here personal computer-based algorithms, operating as utilities on available software, that allow an objective and quantitative analysis of foci from confocal images. The algorithms allow focus counting as well as size definition and correct for focus coincidence due to the overlap normally occurring with an increasing number of foci per nucleus. Furthermore, the software allows measurement of the integrated optical density (IOD) of each individual focus, which enables analysis of properties of foci as a function of time. Finally, the information generated by the above analysis algorithms can be employed to evaluate colocalization between foci formed by different proteins. A validation of the software is presented for radiation-induced gamma-H2AX foci in three widely used human cell lines and colocalization tested with RAD51 and gamma-H2AX foci. The computational methods presented extend to images generated by digital cameras.

Complex H2AX phosphorylation patterns by multiple kinases including ATM and DNA-PK in human cells exposed to ionizing radiation and treated with kinase inhibitors.

In eukaryotic cells, DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) cause the prompt phosphorylation of serine 139 at the carboxy terminus of histone H2AX to generate gamma-H2AX, detectable by Western blotting or immunofluorescence. The consensus sequence at the phosphorylation site implicates the phosphatidylinositol 3-like family of protein kinases in H2AX phosphorylation. It remains open whether ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) is the major H2AX kinase, or whether other members of the family, such as DNA-PK (DNA dependent protein kinase) or ATR (ATM and Rad3 related), contribute in a functionally complementary manner. To address this question, we measured global H2AX phosphorylation in cell lysates and foci formation in individual cells of either wild type or mutant (ATM or DNA-PK) genetic background. Normal global phosphorylation kinetics is observed after irradiation in cells defective either in ATM or DNA-PK alone, suggesting a complementary contribution to H2AX phosphorylation. This is further supported by the observation that initial H2AX phosphorylation is delayed when both kinases are inhibited by wortmannin, as well as when ATM is inhibited by caffeine in DNA-PK deficient cells. However, robust residual global phosphorylation is detectable under all conditions of genetic or chemical inhibition suggesting the function of additional kinases, such as ATR. Treatment with wortmannin, caffeine, or UCN-01 produces a strong DNA-PK dependent late global hyperphosphorylation of H2AX, uncoupled from DNA DSB rejoining and compatible with an inhibition of late steps in DNA DSB processing. Evaluation of gamma-H2AX foci formation confirms the major conclusions made on the basis of global H2AX phosphorylation, but also points to differences particularly several hours after exposure to IR. The results in aggregate implicate DNA-PK, ATM and possibly other kinases in H2AX phosphorylation. The functional significance and the mechanisms of coordination in space and time of these multiple inputs require further investigation.

Analysis of the action of the restriction endonuclease AluI using three different comet assay protocols.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The comet assay offers the opportunity to measure the amount of DNA damage and the effectiveness of DNA repair in single cells. In a first part, experiments are presented comparing three different protocols of the comet assay technique with respect to the analysis of the induction of DNA damage after X-irradiation in isolated human lymphocytes and CHO cells. In a second part, the restriction enzyme AluI, an agent producing DNA double-strand breaks exclusively, was introduced into CHO cells by electroporation and the effects were analyzed using the different comet assay protocols. The experiments were carried out in order to test the assertion that comet assay techniques can measure different types of DNA damages at different pH conditions of lysis and electrophoresis. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three different comet assay protocols were used for the analysis of DNA damage in lymphocytes and CHO cells. RESULTS: The results clearly indicate that among the three protocols the modified comet assay technique used by the authors showed the highest sensitivity in the radiotherapy-relevant dose range between 0 and 2 Gy. All three protocols were capable of detecting an effect by AluI. This effect, however, was clearly different from radiation effects. Whereas after radiation exposure all cell nuclei show a dose-dependent increase in DNA content in the comet tail, most of the cell nuclei were unaffected by an AluI uptake. Nevertheless, there was an effect by AluI that could be detected in all three assay versions: between 5% and 15% of the nuclei showed clearly abnormal comet morphologies. CONCLUSION: Neither the strictly alkaline nor the strictly neutral comet assay is applicable in the radiation dose range of about 2 Gy. The restriction enzyme results show that other factors than just DNA strand breaks contribute to DNA migration into the tail of the comets.