[Effect of COVID-19 on routine immunization schedule in Senegalese hospitals]. / Impact de la COVID-19 sur la vaccination de routine en milieu hospitalier au Sénégal.

INTRODUCTION: the COVID-19 pandemic has pushed the world to implement drastic prevention methods based on limiting population movements that have an impact on public health policies, such as vaccination. The purpose of this work was to assess the effect of these preventive measures on routine immunization schedules in hospitals after the outbreak of this pandemic in Senegal. METHODS: we conducted a retrospective cross-sectional study in the Vaccination Unit of the Abass NDAO hospital center in August 2020. We compared data from the Vaccination Unit over the period March-August of the last three years (2018, 2019 and 2020). The parameter studied was the number of vaccine doses administered in the different periods according to the expanded immunization program. RESULTS: in April, the number of doses of vaccines given at 6 weeks was 36 in 2018, 29 in 2019 and 15 in 2020, reflecting a decrease of 50% compared to March. In July, the number of doses given was 40 in 2018, 35 in 2019 and 15 in 2020, reflecting a reduction of 42% compared to 2019. CONCLUSION: measures to combat this pandemic should not affect routine immunization programmes, especially in our resource-constrained country. It is essential to continue vaccination schedule for children and to identify children who have missed vaccine doses in order to implement catch-up vaccination.

Extracellular DNA: A Nutritional Trigger of Mycoplasma bovis Cytotoxicity.

Microbial access to host nutrients is a key factor of the host-pathogen interplay. With their nearly minimal genome, wall-less bacteria of the class Mollicutes have limited metabolic capacities and largely depend on host nutrients for their survival. Despite these limitations, host-restricted mycoplasmas are widely distributed in nature and many species are pathogenic for humans and animals. Yet, only partial information is available regarding the mechanisms evolved by these minimal pathogens to meet their nutrients and the contribution of these mechanisms to virulence. By using the ruminant pathogen Mycoplasma bovis as a model system, extracellular DNA (eDNA) was identified as a limiting nutrient for mycoplasma proliferation under cell culture conditions. Remarkably, the growth-promoting effect induced by supplementation with eDNA was associated with important cytotoxicity for actively dividing host cells, but not confluent monolayers. To identify biological functions mediating M. bovis cytotoxicity, we produced a library of transposon knockout mutants and identified three critical genomic regions whose disruption was associated with a non-cytopathic phenotype. The coding sequences (CDS) disrupted in these regions pointed towards pyruvate metabolism as contributing to M. bovis cytotoxicity. Hydrogen peroxide was found responsible for eDNA-mediated M. bovis cytotoxicity, and non-cytopathic mutants were unable to produce this toxic metabolic compound. In our experimental conditions, no contact between M. bovis and host cells was required for cytotoxicity. Further analyses revealed important intra-species differences in eDNA-mediated cytotoxicity and H2O2 production, with some strains displaying a cytopathic phenotype despite no H2O2 production. Interestingly, the genome of strains PG45 and HB0801 were characterized by the occurrence of insertion sequences (IS) at close proximity to several CDSs found disrupted in non-cytopathic mutants. Since PG45 and HB0801 produced no or limited amount of H2O2, IS-elements might influence H2O2 production in M. bovis. These results confirm the multifaceted role of eDNA in microbial communities and further identify this ubiquitous material as a nutritional trigger of M. bovis cytotoxicity. M. bovis may thus take advantage of the multiple sources of eDNA in vivo to modulate its interaction with host cells, a way for this minimal pathogen to overcome its limited coding capacity.

Impact of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy on Chronic Hepatitis B Serological Markers among Senegalese HIV Co-infected Children.

BACKGROUND: Coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes complex interactions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence and HBV evolution among HIV coinfected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out among 252 HIV infected children enrolled in the Hôpital d'enfants Albert Royer, Dakar, Senegal, from April 2013 to March 2015. Clinical characteristics, immuno-virological status, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, and HBV serological marker were taken from the patients' medical records. RESULTS: Overall, 7 children were HBsAg positive with a determinate prevalence rate of 2.8%. Median age at HIV diagnosis was 3.5 years (1.3-14.4 years). According to World Health Organization (WHO) staging, 40.1% of children were stage 4 and 25.8% were stage 3. Of the 7 HIV/HBV-co-infected children, 6 (86%) received lamivudine alone at initiation of treatment, and only one child received tenofovir associated with emtricitabine. Overall median HAART duration treatment including lamivudine alone or tenofovir+lamivudine (or emtricitabine) was 7.7 years (3.3-11.3). Only the two children (29%) receiving lamivudine during follow-up had high HBV DNA load despite having good immuno-virological status. Suppression of HBV DNA replication was achieved in 5 (71.4%) of 7 children. CONCLUSION AND GLOBAL HEALTH IMPLICATION: HIV/HBV coinfection prevalence was low in our study. HBsAg and HBeAg loss were low while suppression of HBV DNA replication was still higher on tenofovir. Screening and monitoring HBV infection among all HIV infected children are required to direct treatment in order to improve children HBV/HIV coinfected outcome.

Pathogens Causing Respiratory Tract Infections in Children Less Than 5 Years of Age in Senegal.

INTRODUCTION: While acute respiratory tract infections are the main cause of paediatric mortality and morbidity worldwide, pathogen patterns shift due to factors such as hygiene, vaccinations, and antibiotic resistance. Knowledge about current cause of respiratory infections is lacking, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The aim of this study was to identity the various respiratory pathogens causing acute respiratory tract infections in children below 5 years of age visiting a sub-urban primary care clinic in Senegal. METHODS: A case-control study was performed in September and October 2018. Oropharyngeal swabs were collected from cases; infants with fever and respiratory symptoms, and controls; children involved in the vaccination programme. Viral identification was conducted by polymerase chain reaction for 21 different viruses; bacteria were identified by culture studies. Associations between microorganisms, acute respiratory infection and severity of disease were calculated by multivariate regression adjusting for confounders such as age, sex, and living area. RESULTS: Overall, 102 cases and 96 controls were included. Microorganisms were detected in 90.1% of cases and 53.7% of controls (P < .001). Influenza virus A (including H1N1), influenza virus B, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and Streptococcus pneumoniae were independently associated with acute respiratory tract infections. Co-detection of two or more pathogens was present in 49.5% of cases; 31.7% of cases had a pneumonia and 90.2% was treated with antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: This case-control study in a primary care setting in sub-Saharan Africa found influenza virus A and B, RSV, and S pneumoniae to be the main causes of acute respiratory tract infections in children below 5 years of age. We recommend evaluation of antibiotics prescription behaviour in this setting.

[Interauricular communications in children: diagnosis and treatment, about 49 cases at the Children?s University Hospital in Dakar]. / Les communications interauriculaires chez l'enfant: diagnostic et prise en charge à propos de 49 cas aux CHU pédiatriques de Dakar.

Interauricular communication (IAC) is the second most important congenital heart disease in children. It accounts for 6-8% of congenital cardiac malformations in children. However, many questions are still open about this pathology. Thus, this study aims to report the prevalence rate of IAC in hospital but especially to describe its clinical, paraclinical and therapeutic aspects. For this purpose, we conducted a retrospective descriptive study. Data were collected by means of a questionnaire and then entered and analyzed in Sphinx (V5). The prevalence in Hospital was 2x1000. The average age of patients was 37 months, the sex-ratio was 0,75. No prenatal diagnosis was made. Parental consanguinity was detected in 30% of cases. Respiratory infections were found in 24% of cases. Cardiomegaly was found in 35 cases with hypervascularization in 63% of cases. Ultrasound showed a predominance of ostium secundum; wide IAC was found in 63% of cases. Pulmonary stenosis was the most important associated heart attack. Pulmonary arterial hypertension was found in 63% of the cases. Treatment was based on diuretics, which were largely used and only 7 children underwent surgery. Evolution was favorable in 39 patients reflecting a rate of 79%. Early diagnosis of IAC should be improved as well as surgical treatment of IAC affecting infants.

[Hyperthyroidism in children at the University Hospital in Dakar (Senegal)]. / L'hyperthyroïdie de l'enfant au centre hospitalier universitaire de Dakar (Sénégal).

INTRODUCTION: Hyperthyroidism in children is rare and constitutes a problem because of its psychosomatic impact. This study aimed to present an overview of the state of knowledge on these aspects in children from Dakar. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter, descriptive study over a period of 15 years. We evaluated the epidemiological, clinical and etiologic aspects of hyperthyroidism in children. RESULTS: 239 patients were included in the study with a prevalence of 2.4%, a sex ratio (M/F) of 0.36 and an average age of 10.8 years. The inclusion criteria were being the eldest son in a family(26.3%), being advanced (36.9%) or delayed (12.5%) in maturation, having short stature (40.1%). It was caused by Graves' disease in 90.3% of cases with psychoaffective factor in 22.1%. On a clinical point of view tachycardia (92.4%), goiter (91.1%), exophthalmia (81.8%), weight loss (69.8%) prevailed but with bed-wetting (30.2%) and psychic manifestations (3.1%). Cardiovascular and cutaneous manifestations were positively associated with age (p < 0.05). Goiter was associated with female sex (p = 0.005), cardiovascular (p = 0.02), neuropsychic (p = 0.03), skin (p = 0.03) signs and diarrhea (p = 0.03). Free T4 was correlated with age (p = 0.007), diarrhea (p = 0.021), anxiety (p = 0.024), heart rate (p = 0.00) and Graves' disease (p = 0.04). More voluminous the goiter, higher the free T4 (p = 0.007). CONCLUSION: Hyperthyroidism in children differs from that in adults because of induction factors, growth disturbances and enuresis. Age and sex seem to favor the clinical picture of thyrotoxicosis and its associated signs.

High prevalence of dental caries among HIV-infected children in West Africa compared to uninfected siblings.

INTRODUCTION: The objectives of this study were to investigate the association between HIV infection and dental caries among children in West Africa, and to identify factors associated with dental caries among HIV-infected children. METHODS: We conducted a multi-center cross-sectional study in Mali, Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire with a random sample of HIV-infected children aged 5-15 years on antiretroviral therapy and their uninfected siblings. A standardized examination was performed by calibrated dentists. The association between the number of decayed, missing or filled permanent and primary teeth surfaces (DMFdefS) and HIV status was investigated by fitting multivariable zero-inflated negative binomial models, for each age group (<12 and ≥12 years). Factors associated with dental caries could be investigated only for HIV-infected children <12 years old. RESULTS: The sample included 420 HIV-infected children and 418 non-infected siblings. The median DMFdefS was 7 for the HIV-infected children and 2 for the uninfected siblings. The proportion of children with DMFdefS ≥1 was significantly higher among the HIV-infected children than uninfected children (86.0 percent versus 64.4 percent, P < 0.001). The HIV-infected children were less likely to be caries-free than the uninfected siblings in both age groups. We found a higher degree of caries experience among HIV-infected children < 12 years old, in whom it was associated with sweet drink consumption, history of night bottle use, immunosuppression, and younger age at study entry. CONCLUSIONS: Although preventable, the burden of dental disease was high in children from families affected by HIV in West Africa and was associated with HIV infection and immunosuppression.

[Difficulties in the management of cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) complicated by subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) in infants: about a case]. / Difficultés de la prise en charge d'une thrombose veineuse cérébrale (TVC) compliquée d'hémorragie sous arachnoïdienne (HSA) chez le nourrisson: à propos d'un cas.

CVT is generally rare, particularly among infants. The occurrence of a SAH associated with CVT is very uncommon and only a few cases have been reported in the literature. Symptoms are variable and often misleading. Outcome can be lethal or it can cause potentially severe sequelae if it is not treated or treated late. We report the case of a 22-month old infant examined for convulsions with Stage II coma, intracranial hypertension syndrome and infectious syndrome. Laboratory tests showed pseudomonas spp sepsis and cerebral CT scan allowed the diagnosis. Treatment was based on antibiotic therapy but mainly on anticoagulation therapy. The patient had a significant clinical improvement and follow-up cerebral CT scan showed disappearance of thrombosis with sequellar right hemoragic images. CVT is a severe disease, usually of infectious origin. Anticoagulant therapy is controversial, in particular in patients with associated hemorrhage, but clinical experience supports the effectiveness and safety of this treatment.

[Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) in children at the University Hospital Center in Dakar: about four cases]. / Syndrome hémolytique et urémique de l'enfant au Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Dakar: à propos de quatre observations.

Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) is a common cause of organic acute renal failure (ARF) in children. It is a progressive complication of acute gastroenteritis (AGE), especially caused by Escherichia coli in children. This study aimed to describe the clinical, therapeutic and evolutionary aspects of this affection in four children. We collected four cases of HUS. The average age was 10,5 months (5-15mois), exclusively boys. Clinical examination revealed a hemolytic anemia (pallor and jaundice), oligoanuria and edematous syndrome (2 cases), arterial hypertension (1 patient), AGE associated with severe dehydration and hypovolemic shock (2 patients), consciousness disorders. ARF was found in all patients as well as thrombocytopenia and schizocytes smear. Direct Coombs test was negative. Hyperkalemia was found in 3 patients, of whom 1 with hyperkalemia level of more than 9.2 mmol/L, hyponatremia at 129 mmol/l (1 patient) and hypernatremia at 153 mmol/l (1 patient). HUS was secondary to pneumococcal pneumonia (1 patient) while AGE was secondary to E. coli (1 patient). The treatment was mainly symptomatic and included fluid restriction, transfusion of red cell concentrates, diuretics, peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis. The evolution was marked by the onset of chronic renal failure (1 patient) after 6 months of follow-up and by recovery (1 case). Three patients died. HUS is the most common cause of organic acute renal failure in newborns. Diagnosis is essentially biological, treatment is mostly symptomatic.

[Congenital hypothyroidism in Dakar: about 28 cases]. / Hypothyroïdie congénitale à Dakar: à propos de 28 cas.

Child hypothyroidism has been little studied in Senegal. The aim of this study was to evaluate the epidemiological, diagnostic and evolutionary aspects of congenital hypothyroidism. We conducted a descriptive-analytical retrospective study of all children treated for congenital hypothyroidism at the Albert-Royer National Children's Hospital Center over the period from 2001 to 2014 (14 years). We collected and analyzed socio-demographic, clinical and evolutionary data from patient medical records. A total of 28 patients were included in the study, an average of 2 cases per year. The average age of discovery of hypothyroidism was 54.25 ± 43 months with a female predominance (Sex-ratio 0.47). Only 2 cases of hypothyroidism were diagnosed in the neonatal period. Consanguinity was present in 68% of patients. Clinical signs were dominated by the delay in psychomotor acquisitions (96%), hypothermia (46%), cranio-facial dysmorphia (43%) and goiter (39%). Growth retardation was constant beyond 6 months. The etiologies were dominated by hormonosynthesis disorders (84.21%). During the study period, mean SD of patients had decreased from -3.5 SD to -2.25 SD for a median treatment duration of 28 months. Mental retardation was present in 73% of cases. Growth retardation and mental retardation were more severe as the diagnosis was late. Our results confirm the inadequacy of early management of patients. It is urgent to implement a routine neonatal screening system in order to improve the mental prognosis of this condition.

[Portal cavernoma in children revealed by gastrointestinal haemorrhage: about a case]. / Cavernome portal chez l'enfant révélé par une hémorragie digestive: à propos d'un cas.

Portal cavernoma is a venous vascular anomaly characterized by the formation of a network of veins whose caliber is increased and carrying portal blood. It is due to a thrombotic and always chronic occlusion of the extra-hepatic portal venous system. This is one of the most common causes of portal hypertension in children. Its severity is mainly associated with an high risk of gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Very few cases have been described mainly in African literature. We report the case of a 4-year old boy admitted with very abundant haematemesis, melena and dizziness associated with anemic syndrome on examination. Laboratory tests showed severe microcytic hypochromic anemia with normal renal and hepatic function. Gastrointestinal endoscopy showed esophageal varices (grade III) with red signs. Abdominal ultrasound showed portal vein formation resulting in the classic "spiderweb", in favor of a cavernoma. Abdominal CT scan confirmed portal cavernoma associated with portal hypertensive syndrome and vascular anomaly like an ectopic splenic vein anastomosis with the trunk formed by the gonadal vein and the inferior mesenteric vein. Therapeutic approach was based on blood transfusion and beta-blocker treatment. Portal cavernoma can be a major complication of vascular malformations often unknown. In case of gastrointestinal haemorrhage in children, diagnosis should be suspected. Its management requires early treatment and should be adapted to the patient's condition in order to prevent a fatal evolution.

Oral lesions among HIV-infected children on antiretroviral treatment in West Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of oral mucosal diseases and dental caries among HIV-infected children receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART) in West Africa and to identify the factors associated with the prevalence of oral mucosal lesions. METHODS: Multicentre cross-sectional survey in five paediatric HIV clinics in Côte d'Ivoire, Mali and Sénégal. A standardised examination was performed by trained dentists on a random sample of HIV-infected children aged 5-15 years receiving ART. The prevalence of oral and dental lesions and mean number of decayed, missing/extracted and filled teeth (DMFdefT) in temporary and permanent dentition were estimated with their 95% confidence interval (95% CI). We used logistic regression to explore the association between children's characteristics and the prevalence of oral mucosal lesions, expressed as prevalence odds ratio (POR). RESULTS: The median age of the 420 children (47% females) enrolled was 10.4 years [interquartile range (IQR) = 8.3-12.6]. The median duration on ART was 4.6 years (IQR = 2.6-6.2); 84 (20.0%) had CD4 count<350 cells/mm(3). A total of 35 children (8.3%; 95% CI: 6.1-11.1) exhibited 42 oral mucosal lesions (24 were candidiasis); 86.0% (95% CI = 82.6-89.3) of children had DMFdefT ≥ 1. The presence of oral mucosal lesions was independently associated with CD4 count < 350 cells/mm(3) (POR = 2.96, 95% CI = 1.06-4.36) and poor oral hygiene (POR = 2.69, 95% CI = 1.07-6.76). CONCLUSIONS: Oral mucosal lesions still occur in HIV-infected African children despite ART, but rarely. However, dental caries were common and severe in this population, reflecting the need to include oral health in the comprehensive care of HIV.