Direct and indirect vitamin A supplementation strategies result in different plasma and tissue retinol kinetics in neonatal rats.

Many questions remain regarding vitamin A (VA) supplementation of infants. Herein we compared direct oral VA supplementation of the neonate and indirect treatment through maternal dietary VA (M-VA) treatment on VA status and kinetics in neonatal rats. Treatments included direct VA combined with retinoic acid (RA) [D-VARA; VA (6 mg/kg) + 10% RA, given orally to neonates on postnatal day (P)2 and P3] and indirect VA supplementation through increased M-VA, compared with each other and oil-treated neonates. [(3)H]retinol was administered orally to all neonates on P4. Plasma and tissue [(3)H]retinol kinetics were determined from 1 h to 14 days post-dosing. D-VARA versus placebo dramatically increased liver and lung retinol, but only in the first 8-10 days. In M-VA neonates, liver and lung VA increased progressively throughout the study. Compartmental modeling of plasma [(3)H]retinol showed that both D-VARA and indirect M-VA reduced retinol recycling between plasma and tissues. Compartmental models of individual tissues predicted that D-VARA stimulated the uptake of VA in chylomicrons to extrahepatic tissues, especially intestine, while the uptake was not observed in M-VA neonates. In conclusion, indirect maternal supplementation had a greater sustained effect than D-VARA on neonatal VA status, while also differentially affecting plasma and tissue retinol kinetics.

Perceptual and Brain Response to Odors Is Associated with Body Mass Index and Postprandial Total Ghrelin Reactivity to a Meal.

Animal studies have shown that olfactory sensitivity is greater when fasted than when fed. However, human research has generated inconsistent results. One possible explanation for these conflicting findings is metabolic health. Many metabolic peptides, including ghrelin, are moderated by adiposity and influence olfaction and olfactory-guided behaviors. We tested whether the effect of a meal on the perceived intensity of suprathreshold chemosensory stimuli is influenced by body mass index and/or metabolic response to a meal. We found that overweight or obese (n = 13), but not healthy weight (n = 20) subjects perceived odors, but not flavored solutions, as more intense when hungry than when sated. This effect was correlated with reduced postprandial total ghrelin suppression (n = 23) and differential brain response to odors in the cerebellum, as measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging. In contrast, it was unrelated to circulating leptin, glucose, insulin, triglycerides, or free fatty acids; or to odor pleasantness or sniffing (n = 24). These findings demonstrate that the effect of a meal on suprathreshold odor intensity perception is associated with metabolic measures such as body weight and total ghrelin reactivity, supporting endocrine influences on olfactory perception.

Weighing the evidence: Variance in brain responses to milkshake receipt is predictive of eating behavior.

Variations in brain responses to sensory stimuli are typically considered to lack information content and treated as "noise". Alternatively, variable response patterns may reflect the adjustment of biological parameters to external factors. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy non-dieting individuals to test whether intra-individual variation in brain response to the receipt of milkshake is associated with a range of behavioral and metabolic parameters. We found that, following a meal, high variability in nucleus accumbens (NAcc) response to milkshake is associated with higher body mass index, greater dietary disinhibition, more variable ad libitum food consumption, faster increases in plasma insulin, faster decreases in plasma glucose, and greater weight loss over 1year. Our results thus uncover a series of physiological parameters encrypted as variable responses in NAcc to food stimuli. They also suggest that variations in striatal activity regulate the activation of behavioral and metabolic responses to food availability.

Basolateral amygdala response to food cues in the absence of hunger is associated with weight gain susceptibility.

In rodents, food-predictive cues elicit eating in the absence of hunger (Weingarten, 1983). This behavior is disrupted by the disconnection of amygdala pathways to the lateral hypothalamus (Petrovich et al., 2002). Whether this circuit contributes to long-term weight gain is unknown. Using fMRI in 32 healthy individuals, we demonstrate here that the amygdala response to the taste of a milkshake when sated but not hungry positively predicts weight change. This effect is independent of sex, initial BMI, and total circulating ghrelin levels, but it is only present in individuals who do not carry a copy of the A1 allele of the Taq1A polymorphism. In contrast, A1 allele carriers, who have decreased D2 receptor density (Blum et al., 1996), show a positive association between caudate response and weight change. Regardless of genotype, however, dynamic causal modeling supports unidirectional gustatory input from basolateral amygdala (BLA) to hypothalamus in sated subjects. This finding suggests that, as in rodents, external cues gain access to the homeostatic control circuits of the human hypothalamus via the amygdala. In contrast, during hunger, gustatory inputs enter the hypothalamus and drive bidirectional connectivity with the amygdala. These findings implicate the BLA-hypothalamic circuit in long-term weight change related to nonhomeostatic eating and provide compelling evidence that distinct brain mechanisms confer susceptibility to weight gain depending upon individual differences in dopamine signaling.