High-Density Lipoprotein Signaling via Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptors Safeguards Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats against Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury.

BACKGROUND: High-density lipoprotein (HDL) protects against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury via signaling through scavenger-receptor class B type-I (SR-BI) and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors (S1PRs). We recently reported that HDL protects the hearts of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) against I/R injury in an SR-BI-dependent manner. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we examined the role of S1PRs in HDL-induced protection against myocardial I/R injury in hypertensive rats. METHODS: Hearts from Wistar Kyoto rats (WKYs) and SHRs were subjected to I/R injury using a modified Langendorff system. The hearts were treated with or without HDL in the presence or absence of a receptor- or kinase-specific antagonist. Cardiac hemodynamics and infarct size were measured. Target proteins were analyzed by immunoblotting and ELISA, and nitrite levels were measured using Greis reagent. RESULTS: HDL protected the hearts of WKYs and SHRs against I/R injury. HDL, however, was more protective in WKYs. HDL protection in SHRs required lipid uptake via SR-BI and S1PR1 and S1PR3 but not S1PR2. The hearts from SHRs expressed significantly lower levels of S1PR3 than the hearts from WKYs. HDL differentially activated mediators of the SAFE and RISK pathways in WKYs and SHRs and resulted in nitric oxide generation. Blockage of these pathways abrogated HDL effects. CONCLUSIONS: HDL protects against myocardial I/R injury in normotensive and hypertensive rats, albeit to varying degrees. HDL protection in hearts from hypertensive rodents involved SR-BI-mediated lipid uptake coupled with signaling through S1PR1 and S1PR3. The extent of HDL-induced cardiac protection is directly proportional to S1PR3 expression levels. Mechanistically, the safeguarding effects of HDL involved activation of the SAFE and RISK pathways and the generation of nitric oxide.

Impaired Insulin Signaling Alters Mediators of Hippocampal Synaptic Dynamics/Plasticity: A Possible Mechanism of Hyperglycemia-Induced Cognitive Impairment.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological condition that affects the elderly and is characterized by progressive and irreversible neurodegeneration in the cerebral cortex [...].

Understanding pacing postconditioning-mediated cardiac protection: a role of oxidative stress and a synergistic effect of adenosine

We and others have demonstrated a protective role for pacing postconditioning (PPC) against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in the heart; however, the underlying mechanisms behind these protective effects are not completely understood. In this study, we wanted to further characterize PPC-mediated cardiac protection, specifically identify optimal pacing sites; examine the role of oxidative stress; and test the existence of a potential synergistic effect between PPC and adenosine. Isolated rat hearts were subjected to coronary occlusion followed by reperfusion. PPC involved three, 30 s, episodes of alternating left ventricular (LV) and right atrial (RA) pacing. Multiple pacing protocols with different pacing electrode locations were used. To test the involvement of oxidative stress, target-specific agonists or antagonists were infused at the beginning of reperfusion. Hemodynamic data were digitally recorded, and cardiac enzymes, oxidant, and antioxidant status were chemically measured. Pacing at the LV or RV but not at the heart apex or base significantly (P < 0.001) protected against ischemia-reperfusion injury. PPC-mediated protection was completely abrogated in the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, ebselen; peroxynitrite (ONOO-) scavenger, uric acid; and nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, L-NAME. Nitric oxide (NO) donor, snap, however significantly (P < 0.05) protected the heart against I/R injury in the absence of PPC. The protective effects of PPC were significantly improved by adenosine. PPC-stimulated protection can be achieved by alternating LV and RA pacing applied at the beginning of reperfusion. NO, ROS, and the product of their interaction ONOO− play a significant role in PPC-induced cardiac protection. Finally, the protective effects of PPC can be synergized with adenosine (AU)

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Understanding pacing postconditioning-mediated cardiac protection: a role of oxidative stress and a synergistic effect of adenosine.

We and others have demonstrated a protective role for pacing postconditioning (PPC) against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in the heart; however, the underlying mechanisms behind these protective effects are not completely understood. In this study, we wanted to further characterize PPC-mediated cardiac protection, specifically identify optimal pacing sites; examine the role of oxidative stress; and test the existence of a potential synergistic effect between PPC and adenosine. Isolated rat hearts were subjected to coronary occlusion followed by reperfusion. PPC involved three, 30 s, episodes of alternating left ventricular (LV) and right atrial (RA) pacing. Multiple pacing protocols with different pacing electrode locations were used. To test the involvement of oxidative stress, target-specific agonists or antagonists were infused at the beginning of reperfusion. Hemodynamic data were digitally recorded, and cardiac enzymes, oxidant, and antioxidant status were chemically measured. Pacing at the LV or RV but not at the heart apex or base significantly (P < 0.001) protected against ischemia-reperfusion injury. PPC-mediated protection was completely abrogated in the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, ebselen; peroxynitrite (ONOO-) scavenger, uric acid; and nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, L-NAME. Nitric oxide (NO) donor, snap, however significantly (P < 0.05) protected the heart against I/R injury in the absence of PPC. The protective effects of PPC were significantly improved by adenosine. PPC-stimulated protection can be achieved by alternating LV and RA pacing applied at the beginning of reperfusion. NO, ROS, and the product of their interaction ONOO- play a significant role in PPC-induced cardiac protection. Finally, the protective effects of PPC can be synergized with adenosine.

Pacing Postconditioning: Recent Insights of Mechanism of Action and Probable Future Clinical Application.

Ischemic heart disease, also known as coronary heart disease or coronary artery disease, accounts for >50% of cardiovascular events and is a leading cause worldwide of morbidity and mortality. Hypoperfusion of the heart is the major cause of injury in ischemic heart disease, as it results in the death of cardiomyoctes due to a lack of oxygen and energy. This injury ultimately leads to a dead area in the heart called infarcted area or myocardial infarction. The formation of myocardial infarction leads to a lengthy process of remodeling which causes many changes in the architecture and the electrophysiology of the heart. These changes may eventually lead to death due to arrhythmia or heart failure. Tremendous efforts have been made over the last decades to decrease the burden of ischemic reperfusion (I/R) injury. The first salvage to the ischemic heart is reperfusion; however, this procedure is associated with a subsequent reperfusion injury. In the 1980s, a method known as preconditioning was introduced and showed great potential in combating ischemic heart disease, but this technique is limited by the difficulty of its translation to the clinic as it requires the anticipation of an occurrence of ischemic heart disease. Not long after, a new method, postconditioning, was introduced. This method showed great success, and several studies were performed to investigate its signaling cascades and the possibility of its translation to the clinic. Thereafter, several trials were made, and many methods of postconditioning were developed. One of these is intermittent dyssynchrony, pacing postconditioning (PPC), of the heart, which involves brief episodes of electrical pacing. PPC afforded a pronounced protection to the heart against I/R injury, similar to that afforded by pre- and postconditioning.

The protective effects of 17Beta-estradiol against ischemia-reperfusion injury and its effect on pacing postconditioning protection to the heart

The role of pacing postconditioning (PPC) in the heart protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury is not completely understood. The aim of this study was to investigated if 17-Beta-estradiol (estrogen, E2), endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), endogenous brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-Alpha) are involved in PPC-mediated protection. Langendorff perfused female Wistar rat hearts were used for this study. Hearts challenged with regional ischemia for 30 min subjected to no further treatment served as a control. The PPC protocol was 3 cycles of 30 s pacing alternated between the right atrium and left ventricle (LV). Protection was assessed by recovery of LV contractility and coronary vascular-hemodynamics. Ischemia induced a significant (P < 0.05) deterioration in the heart function compared with baseline data. PPC alone or in combination with short-term E2 treatment (E2 infusion at the beginning of reperfusion) significantly (P < 0.05) improved the heart functions. Short-term E2 treatment post-ischemically afforded protection similar to that of PPC. However, long-term E2 substitution for 6 weeks completely attenuated the protective effects of PPC. Although no changes were noted in endogenous ANP levels, PPC significantly increased BNP expression level and decreased TNF-Alpha in the cardiomyocyte lysate and coronary effluent compared to ischemia and controls. Our data suggested a protective role for short-term E2 treatment similar to that of PPC mediated by a pathway recruiting BNP and downregulating TNF-Alpha. Our study further suggested a bad influence for long-term E2 substitution on the heart as it completely abrogated the protective effects of PPC

The protective effects of 17beta-estradiol against ischemia-reperfusion injury and its effect on pacing postconditioning protection to the heart.

The role of pacing postconditioning (PPC) in the heart protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury is not completely understood. The aim of this study was to investigated if 17-ß-estradiol (estrogen, E2), endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), endogenous brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) are involved in PPC-mediated protection. Langendorff perfused female Wistar rat hearts were used for this study. Hearts challenged with regional ischemia for 30 min subjected to no further treatment served as a control. The PPC protocol was 3 cycles of 30 s pacing alternated between the right atrium and left ventricle (LV). Protection was assessed by recovery of LV contractility and coronary vascular-hemodynamics. Ischemia induced a significant (P < 0.05) deterioration in the heart function compared with baseline data. PPC alone or in combination with short-term E2 treatment (E2 infusion at the beginning of reperfusion) significantly (P < 0.05) improved the heart functions. Short-term E2 treatment post-ischemically afforded protection similar to that of PPC. However, long-term E2 substitution for 6 weeks completely attenuated the protective effects of PPC. Although no changes were noted in endogenous ANP levels, PPC significantly increased BNP expression level and decreased TNF-α in the cardiomyocyte lysate and coronary effluent compared to ischemia and controls. Our data suggested a protective role for short-term E2 treatment similar to that of PPC mediated by a pathway recruiting BNP and downregulating TNF-α. Our study further suggested a bad influence for long-term E2 substitution on the heart as it completely abrogated the protective effects of PPC.

Awareness of hypertension and factors associated with uncontrolled hypertension in Sudanese adults.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of hypertension (HTN) has increased rapidly in the Sudan in the last few years. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of uncontrolled HTN and the risk factors associated with it in Sudanese adults. METHODS: This study was cross sectional. Data were collected using structured questionnaires filled in during interviews with subjects visiting referral clinics in Khartoum, the capital city of Sudan. Blood pressure (BP) was measured using a digital sphygmomanometer. A digital balance was used for determination of body weight and a traditional cloth tape measure was used for measuring height, for calculation of body mass index. RESULTS: This study included 200 subjects, 46% male and 54% female. In the whole study, 82% of subjects (p < 0.001) were on hypertension drug treatment. Of these, 64% had their BP controlled to normal standards set by the World Health Organistion (< 140/90 mmHg). The prevalence of uncontrolled BP was significantly (p < 0.001) higher in males (61%) compared to females (15%). When the risk factors of HTN were considered, 54% of the subjects had a positive family history of HTN and 52% were smokers. Uncontrolled BP was found to be significantly (p < 0.001) higher in smoking males (43%) compared to females (4%). It was also high in people with higher education (55%) and workers (41%). In these groups, when genders were considered separately, uncontrolled hypertension was significantly (p < 0.01) higher in males than females with higher education (67 and 40%, respectively), and in workers (86 and 10%, respectively). Uncontrolled HTN was associated with overweight and obesity in 45 and 29% of the subjects, respectively. Most of the interviewed subjects were not aware of the consequences of HTN and its associated risk factors. CONCLUSION: Uncontrolled HTN was associated with risk factors of HTN and lifestyle, and was more prominent in the male gender. The ignorance of the interviewed subjects about HTN, its associated risk factors, changes in lifestyle and adherence to taking the medication may have been a major factor in the prevalence of uncontrolled HTN.

Stretch-induced upregulation of connective tissue growth factor in rabbit cardiomyocytes.

Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF, CCN2) is considered to play an important role in cardiac remodelling. We studied whether stretch is a primary stimulus to induce CTGF expression in vivo in rabbit heart, and in vitro in isolated cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts. Twenty weeks of combined volume and pressure overload resulted in eccentric left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy, with increased LV internal diameter (+36 %) and LV weight (+53 %). Myocardial CTGF mRNA and protein levels were substantially increased in the overloaded animals. In isolated adult rabbit cardiomyocytes, cyclic stretch strongly induced CTGF mRNA expression (2.9-fold at 48 h), whereas in cardiac fibroblasts CTGF-induction was transient and modest (1.4-fold after 4 h). Conditioned medium from stretched fibroblasts induced CTGF mRNA expression in non-stretched cardiomyocytes (2.3-fold at 48 h). Our findings indicate that stretch is an important primary trigger for CTGF-induction in the overloaded heart.

Pacing postconditioning: impact of pacing algorithm, gender, and diabetes on its myocardial protective effects.

Pacing postconditioning (PPC) induces cardioprotection. The aim of this study was to determine the optimal pacing algorithm and possible influence of gender and diabetes on PPC. Unprotected regional ischemia for 30 min served as negative control and classical PPC (ten cycles of 30 s left ventricular pacing alternated with 30 s right atrial pacing) as positive control. Area at risk and infarct size were determined by blue dye and triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining. For achieving protection, the minimal number of PPC cycles was seven and the minimal duration of a PPC protocol was 200 s. The protective effect of PPC was comparable in male and female hearts, but no protection could be induced by PPC in diabetic hearts. PPC can provide myocardial protection when using at least seven cycles of ventricular pacing. PPC protection is independent of gender, but sensitive to experimental diabetes.

The role of 17-beta estradiol in ischemic preconditioning protection of the heart.

BACKGROUND: The protective effects of 17-beta estradiol (E2) on cardiac tissue during ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury have not yet been fully elucidated. OBJECTIVE: To assess the protective effects of short- and long-term E2 treatments on cardiac tissue exposed to I/R, and to assess the effects of these treatments in combination with ischemic preconditioning (IPC) on cardiac protection from I/R injury. METHODS: SPRAGUE DAWLEY RATS WERE ASSIGNED TO THE FOLLOWING TREATMENT PROTOCOLS: control (no preconditioning); IPC (isolated hearts were subjected to two cycles of 5 min global ischemia followed by 10 min of reperfusion); E2 preconditioning (E2PC; isolated hearts were subjected to E2 pharmacological perfusion for 15 min); short-term in vivo E2 pretreatment for 3 h; long-term in vivo E2 pretreatment or withdrawal (ovariectomy followed by a six-week treatment with E2 or a placebo); combined IPC and E2PC; combined IPC and short- or long-term E2 pretreatments or withdrawal. All hearts were isolated and stabilized for at least 30 min before being subjected to 40 min of global ischemia followed by 30 min of reperfusion; left ventricular function and vascular hemodynamics were then assessed. RESULTS: IPC, E2PC and short-term E2 pretreatment led to the recovery of left ventricle function and vascular hemodynamics. Long-term E2 and placebo treatments did not result in any protection compared with untreated controls. The combination of E2PC or short-term E2 treatments with IPC did not block the IPC protection or result in any additional protection to the heart. Long-term E2 treatment blocked IPC protection; however, placebo treatment did not. CONCLUSIONS: Short-term treatment with E2 protected the heart against I/R injury through a pathway involving the regulation of tumour necrosis factor-alpha. The combination of short-term E2 treatment with IPC did not provide additional protection to the heart. Short-term E2 treatment may be a suitable alternative for classical estrogen replacement therapy.

Protective role of normothermic, hyperthermic and estrogen preconditioning and pretreatment on tumour necrosis factor-alpha-induced damage.

BACKGROUND: Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) has been reported to play an important role in ischemia reperfusion injury and ischemic preconditioning (IPC). However, its role is not completely understood. Recently, normothermic IPC (NIPC), hyperthermic IPC (HIPC), preconditioning (PC) with 17-beta estradiol (estrogen, E2) and E2 pretreatment were proven to be effective in reducing ischemia reperfusion injury. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the detrimental effects of TNF-α on the heart, and the protective effects of NIPC, HIPC, E2 PC and pretreatment on TNF-α-induced injury. METHODS: A Langendorff-perfused rat heart model was used for the present study. Hearts isolated from male rats were studied under eight different conditions (n=5 each): negative control; control treated with TNF-α without any further treatment; NIPC (preconditioned at 37°C); HIPC (preconditioned at 42°C); E2 PC; E2 pretreatment; normal, untreated hearts plus E2; or pretreated hearts perfused for 60 min with TNF-α and an E2-containing buffer. RESULTS: TNF-α treatment resulted in deterioration of heart function. HIPC offered better protection by significantly increasing left ventricular developed pressure (Pmax) and coronary flow (P<0.01), and by decreasing left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (P<0.01). NIPC or pretreatment of the hearts with E2 normalized left ventricular end-diastolic pressure, coronary flow and coronary vascular resistance (P<0.001); however, it did not normalize Pmax. The combination of E2 and HIPC did not show any synergetic protection; however, the addition of HIPC normalized Pmax (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: TNF-α treatment resulted in deterioration of heart hemodynamics, which were reversed by HIPC, E2 PC and pretreatment. The combination of these treatments did not add to the previously observed protection compared with when they were used individually.

Long-term protection and mechanism of pacing-induced postconditioning in the heart.

Brief periods of ventricular pacing during the early reperfusion phase (pacing-induced postconditioning, PPC) have been shown to reduce infarct size as measured after 2 h of reperfusion. In this study, we investigated (1) whether PPC leads to maintained reduction in infarct size, (2) whether abnormal mechanical load due to asynchronous activation is the trigger for PPC and (3) the signaling pathways that are involved in PPC. Rabbit hearts were subjected to 30 min of coronary occlusion in vivo, followed by 6 weeks of reperfusion. PPC consisted of ten 30-s intervals of left ventricular (LV) pacing, starting at reperfusion. PPC reduced infarct size (TTC staining) normalized to area at risk, from 49.0 +/- 3.3% in control to 22.9 +/- 5.7% in PPC rabbits. In isolated ejecting rabbit hearts, replacing LV pacing by biventricular pacing abolished the protective effect of PPC, whereas ten 30-s periods of high preload provided a protective effect similar to PPC. The protective effect of PPC was neither affected by the adenosine receptor blocker 8-SPT nor by the angiotensin II receptor blocker candesartan, but was abrogated by the cytoskeletal microtubule-disrupting agent colchicine. Blockers of the mitochondrial K(ATP) channel (5HD), PKC (chelerythrine) and PI3-kinase (wortmannin) all abrogated the protection provided by PPC. In the in situ pig heart, PPC reduced infarct size from 35 +/- 4 to 16 +/- 12%, a protection which was abolished by the stretch-activated channel blocker gadolinium. No infarct size reduction was achieved if PPC application was delayed by 5 min or if only five pacing cycles were used. The present study indicates that (1) PPC permanently reduces myocardial injury, (2) abnormal mechanical loading is a more likely trigger for PPC than electrical stimulation or G-coupled receptor stimulation and (3) PPC may share downstream pathways with other modes of cardioprotection.

Re-expression of alpha skeletal actin as a marker for dedifferentiation in cardiac pathologies.

Differentiation of foetal cardiomyocytes is accompanied by sequential actin isoform expression, i.e. down-regulation of the 'embryonic' alpha smooth muscle actin, followed by an up-regulation of alpha skeletal actin (alphaSKA) and a final predominant expression of alpha cardiac actin (alphaCA). Our objective was to detect whether re-expression of alphaSKA occurred during cardiomyocyte dedifferentiation, a phenomenon that has been observed in different pathologies characterized by myocardial dysfunction. Immunohistochemistry of alphaCA, alphaSKA and cardiotin was performed on left ventricle biopsies from human patients after coronary bypass surgery. Furthermore, actin isoform expression was investigated in left ventricle samples of rabbit hearts suffering from pressure- and volume-overload and in adult rabbit ventricular cardiomyocytes during dedifferentiation in vitro. Atrial goat samples up to 16 weeks of sustained atrial fibrillation (AF) were studied ultrastructurally and were immunostained for alphaCA and alphaSKA. Up-regulation of alphaSKA was observed in human ventricular cardiomyocytes showing down-regulation of alphaCA and cardiotin. A patchy re-expression pattern of alphaSKA was observed in rabbit left ventricular tissue subjected to pressure- and volume-overload. Dedifferentiating cardiomyocytes in vitro revealed a degradation of the contractile apparatus and local re-expression of alphaSKA. Comparable alphaSKA staining patterns were found in several areas of atrial goat tissue during 16 weeks of AF together with a progressive glycogen accumulation at the same time intervals. The expression of alphaSKA in adult dedifferentiating cardiomyocytes, in combination with PAS-positive glycogen and decreased cardiotin expression, offers an additional tool in the evaluation of myocardial dysfunction and indicates major changes in the contractile properties of these cells.

Estrogen receptor beta protects the murine heart against left ventricular hypertrophy.

BACKGROUND: Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) displays significant gender-based differences. 17beta-estradiol (E2) plays an important role in this process because it can attenuate pressure overload hypertrophy via 2 distinct estrogen receptors (ERs): ERalpha and ERbeta. However, which ER is critically involved in the modulation of LVH is poorly understood. We therefore used ERalpha-deficient (ERalpha-/-) and ERbeta-deficient (ERbeta-/-) mice to analyze the respective ER-mediated effects. METHODS AND RESULTS: Respective ER-deficient female mice were ovariectomized and were given E2 or placebo subcutaneously using 60-day release pellets. After 2 weeks, they underwent transverse aortic constriction (TAC) or sham operation. In ERalpha-/- animals, TAC led to a significant increase in ventricular mass compared with sham operation. E2 treatment reduced TAC induced cardiac hypertrophy significantly in wild-type (WT) and ERalpha-/- mice but not in ERbeta-/- mice. Biochemical analysis showed that E2 blocked the increased phosphorylation of p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase observed in TAC-treated ERalpha-/- mice. Moreover, E2 led to an increase of ventricular atrial natriuretic factor expression in WT and ERalpha-/- mice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that E2, through ERbeta-mediated mechanisms, protects the murine heart against LVH.

17beta-estradiol antagonizes cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by autocrine/paracrine stimulation of a guanylyl cyclase A receptor-cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase pathway.

BACKGROUND: Significant gender-related differences exist in the development of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). In addition, administration of 17beta-estradiol (E2) to ovariectomized female mice attenuates the development of LVH, demonstrating an antagonistic role for E2 in this process, although no molecular mechanism has been proposed for this phenomenon. METHODS AND RESULTS: E2 attenuated phenylephrine and endothelin-1 induced hypertrophy in neonatal cardiomyocytes, and E2 directly induced atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) expression as assessed by Northern blot, immunocytochemical analyses, and transient transfection assays using ANF promoter deletion fragments. Both the antihypertrophic effects and ANF induction could be blocked by the estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780, which demonstrates a genomic, estrogen receptor-dependent pathway. To mimic E2-induced autocrine/paracrine effects through stimulation of the guanylyl cyclase A receptor (ANF receptor), cardiomyocytes were stimulated with phenylephrine or endothelin-1 in the presence of exogenous ANF or 8-bromo-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), both of which attenuated agonist-induced hypertrophy. Both estrogen and ANF increased cGMP activity. The antihypertrophic effect of ANF could be reduced with extracellular ANF antibodies in a dose-dependent manner. cGMP-dependent protein kinase mediates the antihypertrophic effects of E2, so cardiomyocytes were agonist stimulated in the presence of the cGMP-dependent protein kinase blocker KT-5823. KT-5823 not only reversed the antihypertrophic properties of E2, ANF, or 8-bromo-cGMP, but also evoked potentiation of hypertrophy. CONCLUSIONS: E2-mediated induction of ANF in cardiac hypertrophy contributes to its antagonistic effects in LVH.

Requirement of nuclear factor of activated T-cells in calcineurin-mediated cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.

The calcium-activated phosphatase calcineurin has been implicated as a critical intracellular signal transducer of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Although previous data suggested the nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) as its sole transcriptional effector, the absolute requirement of NFAT as a mediator of calcineurin signaling has not been examined in the heart. We therefore investigated the expression and activation profile of NFAT genes in the heart. Four members (NFATc1-c4) are expressed in cardiomyocytes, elicit nuclear translocation upon calcineurin activation, and are able to drive transactivation of cardiac promoter luciferase constructs. To define the necessary function of NFAT factors as hypertrophic transducers, a dominant negative NFAT construct was created, encompassing part of the N-terminal region of NFATc4 containing a conserved calcineurin-binding motif. Cotransfection of this construct dose-dependently abrogated promoter activation, irrespective of the NFAT isoform used, whereas a control construct with the calcineurin-binding motif mutated displayed no such effects. Adenoviral gene transfer of dominant negative NFAT rendered cardiomyocytes resistant toward all aspects of calcineurin or agonist-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, whereas adenoviral gene transfer of the control construct had no discernable effect on these parameters. These results indicate that multiple NFAT isoforms are expressed in cardiomyocytes where they function as necessary transducers of calcineurin in facilitating cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.

Estrogenic hormone action in the heart: regulatory network and function.

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the industrialised countries and display significant gender-based differences. Estrogen plays an important role in the pathogenesis of heart disease and is able to modulate the progression of cardiovascular disease. The focus on the beneficial influence of estrogen is gradually shifting from the vascular system to the myocardium. The presence of functional estrogen receptors in the myocardium has been demonstrated. Estrogen is important for cardiovascular baseline physiology and modulates the myocardial response under pathological conditions. Here we summarise the current knowledge of the regulatory network of estrogenic action in the myocardium and its effects on cardiovascular function.