Associations between mother's depressive symptoms during pregnancy and newborn's brain functional connectivity.

Depression during pregnancy is common and the prevalence further increased during the COVID pandemic. Recent findings have shown potential impact of antenatal depression on children's neurodevelopment and behavior, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Nor is it clear whether mild depressive symptoms among pregnant women would impact the developing brain. In this study, 40 healthy pregnant women had their depressive symptoms evaluated by the Beck Depression Inventory-II at ~12, ~24, and ~36 weeks of pregnancy, and their healthy full-term newborns underwent a brain MRI without sedation including resting-state fMRI for evaluation of functional connectivity development. The relationships between functional connectivities and maternal Beck Depression Inventory-II scores were evaluated by Spearman's rank partial correlation tests using appropriate multiple comparison correction with newborn's gender and gestational age at birth controlled. Significant negative correlations were identified between neonatal brain functional connectivity and mother's Beck Depression Inventory-II scores in the third trimester, but not in the first or second trimester. Higher depressive symptoms during the third trimester of pregnancy were associated with lower neonatal brain functional connectivity in the frontal lobe and between frontal/temporal lobe and occipital lobe, indicating a potential impact of maternal depressive symptoms on offspring brain development, even in the absence of clinical depression.

A longitudinal observational study of skeletal development between ages 3 mo and 6 y in children fed human milk, milk formula, or soy formula.

BACKGROUND: Early infant feeding can affect skeletal development. Most children are fed with breast milk, dairy-based infant formula, or soy-based infant formula during the first year of life. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2010 reports that 12% of the US infants consume soy-based infant formula. Despite potential effects of soy-associated isoflavones on skeletal development, studies investigating bone metabolism and structural and functional bone indices in children are lacking. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this observational study was to investigate early effects of soy-based infant formula (SF group) intake on bone metabolism and structure during the first 6 y of life comparing with those of infants fed with breast milk (BF group) and dairy-based infant formula (MF group). METHODS: A total of 433 healthy infants were followed up from 3 mo to 6 y of age. Children's skeletal development was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA; N = 433) and peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT; n = 78). The urinary biomarkers of bone metabolism (N-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen [NTx] and osteocalcin) were evaluated using immunoassays at 6, 24, 60, and 72 mo. RESULTS: No statistically significant group differences were observed in bone mineral density (BMD) between the BF, MF, and SF groups, assessed using DXA or pQCT. At 6 y of age, children in the SF group showed significantly greater whole-body bone mineral content measured using DXA than those in the MF group. Six-month-old boys in the SF group demonstrated significantly greater levels of NTx than those in the MF group and significantly greater osteocalcin levels than those in the BF group. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these data suggest that although infants at age 6 mo in the SF group showed some enhanced bone metabolism compared with those in the BF and MF groups, as indicated by the urinary biomarkers, no differences in bone metabolism or BMD were noted between ages 2 and 6 y. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00616395.

Track-weighted imaging analysis of white matter microstructures in healthy children: Sex and hemispheric differences.

Structural substrates of sex differences in human function and behavior have been elucidated in previous studies. Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) is a widely used non-invasive imaging technique in studying human brain white matter structural organization. While many DW-MRI studies reporting sex differences in WM structure are based on diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measures, tract specific microstructural differences require further investigation. In this study, we aim to investigate sex differences and sex-specific hemispheric differences in white matter microstructural development in healthy 8-year-old children based on novel track weighted imaging (TWI) analysis. Average pathlength map (APM) is a TWI contrast in which the average length of fibers passing through a voxel is utilized. In this study, we employed tract specific APM measures to evaluate sex differences in WM microstructural development. A total of 37 WM tracts were analyzed including 7 commissural tracts, 9 bilateral association tracts and 6 bilateral projection tracts. APM maps were generated for each tract. Tract-wise group tests were done using the mean values of APM maps. Sex differences were tested using general linear model based group comparisons. Age and total brain volume were included as covariates in the group analysis. Sex specific hemispheric differences were performed for the 15 bilateral tracts. One sample t-tests were done independently for left>right and right>left cases and the APM measures were controlled for age and total cerebral hemispheric volume. P-values<0.05 were considered significant after correcting for multiple comparisons accounting for the total number of tracts. Significant sex differences were revealed in APM measures between boys and girls in 11 WM tracts including rostral body of corpus callosum (CC), left inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF), right cingulum, bilateral first and second segments of superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), right middle longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), bilateral fronto-pontine (FPT) and right parieto-occipital pontine tracts (POPT). The sex differences showed higher APM values for these 11 tracts in boys as compared to that of girls. In hemispheric differences analysis for both boys and girls, 2 tracts, arcuate fasciculus and optic radiation showed higher APM in left tracts as compared right; 5 tracts, IFOF, MLF, third segment of SLF, FPT and superior thalamic radiation showed higher APM in right tracts as compared to left. This indicates that boys and girls possess similar lateral asymmetries in these 7 tracts. Additionally, anterior thalamic radiation (ATR) showed higher APM in left tract and 4 tracts, first segment of SLF, POPT, inferior longitudinal fasciculus and cortico-spinal tract showed higher APM in right for boys. In girls, second segment of SLF and uncinate fasciculus showed higher APM in right hemisphere. These results indicate different lateral asymmetries between boys and girls for 7 tracts. Overall, boys showed higher average fiber length in most of the tracts, even after controlling for total brain volume.

Associations Between White Matter Microstructures and Cognitive Functioning in 8-Year-Old Children: A Track-Weighted Imaging Study.

PURPOSE: Quantitative tractography using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging data is widely used in characterizing white matter microstructure throughout childhood, but more studies are still needed to investigate comprehensive brain-behavior relationships between tract-specific white matter measures and multiple cognitive functions in children. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed diffusion-weighted MRI data of 71 healthy 8-year-old children utilizing white matter tract-specific quantitative measures derived from diffusion-weighted MRI tractography based on a novel track-weighted imaging approach. Track density imaging, average path length map and 4 track-weighted diffusion tensor imaging measures including: mean diffusivity, fractional anisotropy, axial diffusivity, and radial diffusivity were computed for 63 white matter tracts. The track-weighted imaging measures were then correlated with a comprehensive set of neuropsychological test scores in different cognitive domains including intelligence, language, memory, academic skills, and executive functions to identify tract-specific brain-behavior relationships. RESULTS: Significant correlations (P < .05, false discovery rate corrected; r = 0.27-0.57) were found in multiple white matter tracts, with a total of 40 correlations identified between various track-weighted imaging measures including average path length map, track-weighted imaging-fractional anisotropy, and neuropsychological test scores and subscales. Specifically, track-weighted imaging measures indicative of better white matter connectivity and/or microstructural development significantly correlated with higher IQ and better language abilities. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate the ability of track-weighted imaging measures in establishing associations between white matter and cognitive functioning in healthy children and can serve as a reference for normal brain/cognition relationships in young school-age children and further aid in identifying imaging biomarkers predictive of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Soy Formula Is Not Estrogenic and Does Not Result in Reproductive Toxicity in Male Piglets: Results from a Controlled Feeding Study.

Soy infant formula which is fed to over half a million infants per year contains isoflavones such as genistein, which have been shown to be estrogenic at high concentrations. The developing testis is sensitive to estrogens, raising concern that the use of soy formulas may result in male reproductive toxicity. In the current study, male White-Dutch Landrace piglets received either sow milk (Sow), or were provided milk formula (Milk), soy formula (Soy), milk formula supplemented with 17-beta-estradiol (2 mg/kg/d) (M + E2) or supplemented with genistein (84 mg/L of diet; (M + G) from postnatal day 2 until day 21. E2 treatment reduced testis weight (p < 0.05) as percentage of body weight, significantly suppressed serum androgen concentrations, increased tubule area, Germ cell and Sertoli cell numbers (p < 0.05) relative to those of Sow or Milk groups. Soy formula had no such effects relative to Sow or Milk groups. mRNAseq revealed 103 differentially expressed genes in the M + E2 group compared to the Milk group related to endocrine/metabolic disorders. However, little overlap was observed between the other treatment groups. These data suggest soy formula is not estrogenic in the male neonatal piglet and that soy formula does not significantly alter male reproductive development.

Neural correlates of sleep quality in children: Sex-specific associations shown by brain diffusion tractography.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Sleep quality is important for healthy growth and development of children. We aimed to identify associations between sleep disturbances in healthy children without clinical diagnosis of sleep disorders and brain white matter (WM) microstructure using an advanced diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) based tractography analysis, and to explore whether there are sex differences in these associations. METHODS: Brain DW-MRI data were collected from sixty-two 8-year-old children (28 boys, 34 girls) whose parents also completed Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ). Track-weighted imaging (TWI) measures were computed from the DW-MRI data for 37 WM tracts in each subject. Sex-specific partial correlation analyses were performed to evaluate correlations between TWI measures and a set of sleep disturbance scores derived from the CSHQ. RESULTS: Significant correlations (P < .05, FDR-corrected; r: .48-.67) were identified in 13 WM tracts between TWI and sleep disturbance scores. Sexually dimorphic differences in correlations between sleep disturbance scores and WM microstructure measurements were observed. Specifically, in boys, daytime sleepiness positively correlated with track-weighted mean or radial diffusivity in 10 WM tracts (bilateral arcuate fasciculus, left cingulum, right middle longitudinal fasciculus, and three bilateral segments of superior longitudinal fasciculus). In girls, total CSHQ score, night walking, or sleep onset delay negatively correlated with track-weighted fractional anisotropy or axial diffusivity in 4 WM tracts (bilateral inferior longitudinal fasciculus and uncinate fasciculus). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that sleep disturbances without clinical diagnosis of sleep disorders are associated with lower WM microstructural integrity in children. Additionally, the associations possess unique patterns in boys and girls.

Associations between Cortical Asymmetry and Domain Specific Cognitive Functions in Healthy Children.

Cortical asymmetry and functional lateralization form intriguing and fundamental features of human brain organization, and is complicated by individual differences and evolvement with age. While many studies have investigated neuroanatomical differences between hemispheres as well as functional lateralization of the brain for different age groups, few have looked into the associations between cortical asymmetry and development of cognitive functions in children. In this study, we aimed to identify relationships between hemispheric asymmetry in brain cortex measured by MRI and cognitive development in healthy young children evaluated by a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests. Structural MRI data were obtained from 71 children in the age range of 7.5 to 8.5 years. Structural lateralization index (SLI), a reflection of the brain asymmetry, was computed for each of the 3 cortical morphometry measurements: cortical thickness, surface area and gray matter volume. A total of 34 bilateral regions were studied for the whole brain cortex as defined by the Desikan atlas. Region-wise SLI was correlated with domain specific cognitive scores using partial correlation analysis controlled for the potential confounding effects of age and sex. Significant correlations were identified between test scores of multiple cognitive domains and SLI of several cortical regions. Specifically, SLI of total surface area of precuneus and insula significantly correlated with measures of executive function behavior; significant relationships were also found between SLI of mean cortical thickness of superior parietal cortex and memory and language tests scores; in addition, SLI of parahippocampal gyrus also showed significant correlations with language test scores for all 3 morphometry features. These findings revealed regional hemispheric asymmetries that may be linked to specific cognitive abilities in children.Clinical relevance- This study shows associations between structural lateralization in different brain cortical regions and variations in specific cognitive functions in healthy children.

Early infant feeding effect on growth and body composition during the first 6 years and neurodevelopment at age 72 months.

BACKGROUND: This study longitudinally characterized the developmental status, growth, and body composition of children who were fed human milk (breastfed, BF), cow's milk-based (MF), or soy protein-based (SF) infant formula from 3 to 12 months. METHODS: Standardized anthropometrics and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry were used to characterize growth and body composition at 3, 6, 9, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72 months (NCT00616395). Preschool Language Scale-3, Children's Memory Scale Index (CMS), and Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence were administered at age 72 months. Mixed-effects models adjusting for gestational age, birth weight, child race and sex, parental education, and maternal IQ were performed. RESULTS: Body Mass index (BMI) was significantly lower between 24 and 72 months in BF children compared to SF children. At 3 and 6 months, BF infants had significantly higher fat mass (FM) than SF infants, whereas BF children had significantly lower FM at 36 and 48 months than SF children. Delayed Recognition Index of the CMS was higher for SF than for MF participants (p = 0.009). There was no other significant difference in developmental outcomes between groups. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, BF, MF, and SF support adequate growth and development up to age 6 years. IMPACT: Although soy protein-based infant formula is reported to support normal infant growth and development compared to cow's milk-based formula and human milk, there are limited data on the effect of these feeding methods in school-aged children. This study suggests a significant difference in body composition, specifically BMI, after 24 months between infant feeding methods during the first year of life and in early childhood; however, all diets provide adequate nutrients to maintain normal development up to 72 months.

Early Infant Formula Feeding Impacts Urinary Metabolite Profile at 3 Months of Age.

There is a growing consensus that nutritional programming may persist and influence risk for several chronic diseases in adulthood. In the present study, we used urinary metabolic analysis in assessing diet effects on early-life metabolism. Urine samples from healthy three-month-old infants fed human milk (HM; n = 93), cow's milk-based infant formula [MF; n = 80], or soy protein-based infant formula (SF; n = 76) were analyzed with an untargeted metabolomics approach using GC-TOF MS. PLS-DA and ANOVA analyses were performed using MetaboAnalyst (v4.0). A total of 150 metabolites differed significantly among the feeding groups, including dietary-specific patterns of urinary metabolites of sugars, sugar alcohols, amino acids, and polyphenols. Urinary metabolites may mirror the infant's overall metabolism and serve as a noninvasive tool to examine the neonatal effects of diet on early-infant metabolism.

Developmental assessments during the first 5 years of life in infants fed breast milk, cow's milk formula, or soy formula.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of infant feeding mode on childhood cognition and language as the differential effects of infant feeding on development remain understudied. METHODS: Breastfed [BF, 174], cow's milk-based formula-fed [MF, 169], or soy protein-based formula-fed [SF, 161] children were longitudinally tested from age 3 to 60 months for neurodevelopment. Data were analyzed using mixed models while adjusting for multiple covariates. Sex differences were also assessed. RESULTS: Standard scores were within established norms for all groups. There were no differences in mental development to age 24 months, yet BF children had significantly higher motor development scores at age 3 months than SF children (99.1 versus. 97.2). BF children had significantly higher composite intelligence scores at 48 months than MF and SF children (113.4 versus. 109.6 and 108.4, respectively) and higher verbal intelligence scores than SF children at 48 (105.6 versus. 100.7) and 60 months (109.8 versus. 105.9). Greater total language scores at ages 36 and 48 months were found in BF children compared with children fed MF or SF (p < .001), with differences between sexes for auditory comprehension. Higher total language scores at age 60 months were found between BF and SF (105.0 versus. 100.1). CONCLUSION: Breastfeeding was associated with small, statistically significant, differences between children ages 3 and 5 years in verbal intelligence, expressive communication, and auditory comprehension with the latter having potential sexual dimorphic effects. Yet, these differences remain small and may not be of clinical relevance. Overall, MF and SF did not significantly differ.

Cortical Morphometry is Associated with Neuropsychological Function in Healthy 8-Year-Old Children.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cortical development is essential for children's neurocognition. In this study, we evaluated how variations in cortical morphometry in normal children are associated with outcome differences in multiple domains of cognition. METHODS: Eight-year-old children were recruited for a brain MRI followed by a battery of neuropsychological assessments. The MRI scan included 3D-T1-weighted imaging for cortical morphometry in 34 regions defined by the Desikan atlas. The neuropsychological assessments included the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) for IQ, Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-4) for language, Children's Memory Scale (CMS) for memory, Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-4) for academic skills, and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) for executive functions. The relationships between MRI measured cortical features, including gray matter volume, surface area, and cortical thickness for different brain regions and neuropsychological test scores, were evaluated using partial correlation analyses controlled for age and sex. RESULTS: RIAS/CELF-4/CMS/WRAT-4/BRIEF scores showed significant correlations (R: [.38-.44], P: [.005-.046]) with gray matter volume, surface area, or cortical thickness in multiple brain regions. Gray matter volume in the medial orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal cortex appeared to be a sensitive marker for overall neurocognition as it significantly correlated with IQ, language, memory, and executive function behaviors. The superior temporal gyrus and banks of superior temporal sulcus appeared to be most sensitive to reflect overall language function as their cortical features consistently correlated with language-related test scores. CONCLUSIONS: Cortical morphometry significantly correlated with neuropsychological function in healthy children; certain regions/features may serve as sensitive imaging markers.

Neonatal diet alters fecal microbiota and metabolome profiles at different ages in infants fed breast milk or formula.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal diet has a large influence on child health and might modulate changes in fecal microbiota and metabolites. OBJECTIVES: The aim is to investigate fecal microbiota and metabolites at different ages in infants who were breastfed (BF), received dairy-based milk formula (MF), or received soy-based formula (SF). METHODS: Fecal samples were collected at 3 (n = 16, 12, and 14, respectively), 6 (n = 20, 19, and 15, respectively), 9 (n = 12, 11, and 12, respectively), and 12 mo (n = 14, 14, and 15, respectively) for BF, MF, and SF infants. Infants that breastfed until 9 mo and switched to formula were considered as no longer breastfeeding at 12 mo. Microbiota data were obtained using 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing. Untargeted metabolomics was conducted using a Q-Exactive Hybrid Quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer. The data were analyzed using R (version 3.6.0) within the RStudio (version 1.1.463) platform. RESULTS: At 3, 6, and 9 mo of age BF infants had the lowest α-diversity, SF infants had the highest diversity, and MF was intermediate. Bifidobacterium was 2.6- to 5-fold lower in SF relative to BF infants through 1 y of life. An unidentified genus from Ruminococcaceae higher in the SF (2%) than in the MF (0.4%) and BF (0.08%) infants at 3 mo of age was observed. In BF infants higher levels of butyric acid, d-sphingosine, kynurenic acid, indole-3-lactic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, and betaine were observed than in MF and SF infants. At 3 mo Ruminococcaceae was positively correlated to azelaic, gentisic, isocitric, sebacic, and syringic acids. At 6 mo Oscillospira was negatively correlated with 3-hydroxybutyric-acid, hydroxy-hydrocinnamic acid, and betaine whereas Bifidobacterium was negatively associated with 5-hydroxytryptamine. At 12 mo of age, Lachnospiraceae was negatively associated with hydroxyphenyllactic acid. CONCLUSIONS: Infant diet has a large impact on the fecal microbiome and metabolome in the first year of life.This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00616395.

Parental adiposity differentially associates with newborn body composition.

BACKGROUND: Maternal obesity increases offspring's obesity risk. However, studies have not often considered maternal metabolic and exercise patterns as well as paternal adiposity as potential covariates. OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between parental and newborn adiposity. METHODS: Participants were mother-child pairs (n = 209) and mother-father-offspring triads (n = 136). Parental (during gestation) and offspring (2 weeks old) percent fat mass (FM) were obtained using air displacement plethysmography. Maternal race, age, resting energy expenditure (indirect calorimetry), physical activity (accelerometry), gestational weight gain (GWG), gestational age (GA), delivery mode, infant's sex and infant feeding method were incorporated in multiple linear regression analyses. The association between parental FM and offspring insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) was assessed at age 2 years. RESULTS: Maternal adiposity was positively-associated with male (ß = 0.11, P = .015) and female (ß = 0.13, P = .008) infant FM, whereas paternal adiposity was negatively-associated with male newborn adiposity (ß = -0.09, P = .014). Breastfeeding, female sex, GA and GWG positively associated with newborn adiposity. Vaginal and C-section delivery methods associated with greater adiposity than vaginal induced delivery method. Plasma IGF-1 of 2-year-old boys and girls positively associated with their respective fathers' and mothers' FM. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal and paternal adiposity differentially associate with newborn adiposity. The mechanisms of this finding remain to be determined.

Diffusion Tensor MRI of White Matter of Healthy Full-term Newborns: Relationship to Neurodevelopmental Outcomes.

Background It is well known that white matter injuries observed at birth are associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes later in life. Whether white matter developmental variations in healthy newborns are also associated with changes in later neurodevelopment remains to be established. Purpose To evaluate whether developmental variations of white matter microstructures identified by MRI correlate with neurodevelopmental outcomes in healthy full-term infants. Materials and Methods In this prospective study, pregnant women were recruited and their healthy full-term newborns underwent a brain MRI including diffusion tensor imaging at approximately 2 weeks of age. These infants were tested at approximately 2 years of age with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID). Voxel-wise correlation analyses of fractional anisotropy (FA), measured with diffusion tensor MRI, and neurodevelopmental test scores, measured by using BSID, were performed by using tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS), followed by region-of-interest (ROI) analyses of correlations between mean FA in selected white matter ROIs and each BSID subscale score. Results Thirty-eight full-term infants (20 boys, 18 girls) underwent MRI examination at 2 weeks of age (14.3 days ± 1.6) and BSID measurement at 2 years of age (732 days ± 6). TBSS analyses showed widespread clusters in major white matter tracts, with positive correlations (P ≤ .05, corrected for the voxel-wise multiple comparisons) between FA values and multiple BSID subscale scores. These correlations were largely independent of several demographic parameters as well as family environment. Gestational age at birth appeared to be a confounding factor as TBSS-observed correlations weakened when it was included as a covariate; however, after controlling for gestational age at birth, ROI analyses still showed positive correlations (P ≤ .05, R = 0.35 to 0.48) between mean FA in many white matter ROIs and BSID cognitive, language, and motor scores. Conclusion There were significant associations between white matter microstructure developmental variations in healthy full-term newborns and their neurodevelopmental outcomes. © RSNA, 2019 Online supplemental material is available for this article. See also the editorial by Hu and McAllister in this issue.

White Matter Microstructure Correlates with Memory Performance in Healthy Children: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The complex function of memory has been linked to both brain gray and white matter (WM). WM abnormalities are associated with memory impairment in pathological conditions. We investigated whether variation in WM microstructure in healthy children also correlates with memory performance. METHODS: Sixty-five 7.5 to 8.5-year-old healthy children had a brain MRI scan using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). They were also assessed for memory performance using the Children's Memory Scale (CMS). Eight indices that evaluate verbal and visual memory (immediate and delayed) were measured. DTI parameters reflecting WM microstructure, including fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), radial diffusivity (RD), and axial diffusivity (AD), were calculated and correlated with memory indices. RESULTS: Tract-based spatial statistics analysis showed multiple WM tracts in which DTI parameters correlated with CMS indices. Specifically, FA (a reflection of WM integrity) and RD values (a reflection of myelination) in multiple projecting, association, and commissural WM tracts correlated with verbal delayed index (P < .05, corrected for voxel-wise multiple comparisons). Also, FA values in several WM tracts, including superior longitudinal fasciculus and posterior corona radiata, positively correlated with delayed recognition index (P < .05, corrected). Region of interest analyses showed similar correlations between FA/RD and CMS scores in WM regions involving these tracts and additionally in the cingulum, and detected additional MD-CMS correlations in several regions. CONCLUSIONS: Significant correlations between DTI parameter values and CMS indices in multiple WM tracts in healthy children indicate that neuroimaging can sensitively detect brain WM changes associated with variations of memory function, even for that in the normal range.

Resting gamma power during the postnatal critical period for GABAergic system development is modulated by infant diet and sex.

Gamma band activity (30-50 Hz) plays an essential role in brain development and function, but neither the early postnatal development nor subject and environmental factors influencing this development have been reported. We documented the development of resting gamma power using high density EEG recordings obtained each month from postnatal month 2 to 6 in 518 healthy infants who were breast-fed (170; 85 boys), fed milk formula (186; 97 boys), or fed soy formula (162; 90 boys). Gamma power was determined for 44 sites distributed over major brain regions and analyses were adjusted for background variables relevant to neurodevelopment. The results show gamma power follows a gradually increasing function across this time period that varies in topographic magnitude and is differentially influenced by subject and environmental variables-among which gestation, head circumference, and infant diet-sex interactions figure most prominently. Relationships between gamma power and standardized measures of infant behavioral development appear to be emerging but are in flux during this time. Since this postnatal period is considered critical in the development of the GABAergic system underlying the generation of gamma activity, the observed findings may reflect organizational changes that will influence the future development of gamma-related behavioral and neurocognitive functions.

Concentrations of Purine Metabolites Are Elevated in Fluids from Adults and Infants and in Livers from Mice Fed Diets Depleted of Bovine Milk Exosomes and their RNA Cargos.

Background: Humans and mice absorb bovine milk exosomes and their RNA cargos. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to determine whether milk exosome- and RNA-depleted (ERD) and exosome- and RNA-sufficient (ERS) diets alter the concentrations of purine metabolites in mouse livers, and to determine whether diets depleted of bovine milk alter the plasma concentration and urine excretion of purine metabolites in adults and infants, respectively. Methods: C57BL/6 mice were fed ERD (providing 2% of the microRNA cargos compared with ERS) and ERS diets starting at age 3 wk; livers were collected at age 7 wk. Plasma and 24-h urine samples were collected from healthy adults who consumed (DCs) or avoided (DAs) dairy products. Spot urine samples were collected from healthy infants fed human milk (HM), milk formula (MF), or soy formula (SF) at age 3 mo. Purine metabolites were analyzed in liver, plasma, and urine; mRNAs and microRNAs were analyzed in the livers of female mice. Results: We found that 9 hepatic purine metabolites in ERD-fed mice were 1.76 ± 0.43 times the concentrations in ERS-fed mice (P < 0.05). Plasma concentrations and urine excretion of purine metabolites in DAs was ≤1.62 ± 0.45 times the concentrations in DCs (P < 0.05). The excretion of 13 purine metabolites in urine from SF infants was ≤175 ± 39 times the excretion in HM and MF infants (P < 0.05). mRNA expression of 5'-nucleotidase, cytosolic IIIB, and adenosine deaminase in mice fed ERD was 0.64 ± 0.52 and 0.60 ± 0.28 times the expression in mice fed ERS, respectively. Conclusion: Diets depleted of bovine-milk exosomes and RNA cargos caused increases in hepatic purine metabolites in mice, and in plasma and urine from human adults and infants, compared with exosome-sufficient controls. These findings are important, because purines play a role in intermediary metabolism and cell signaling.

Brain activation to high-calorie food images in healthy normal weight and obese children: a fMRI study.

BACKGROUND: Understanding how normal weight and obese young children process high-calorie food stimuli may provide information relevant to the neurobiology of eating behavior contributing to childhood obesity. In this study, we used fMRI to evaluate whether brain activation to high-calorie food images differs between normal weight and obese young children. METHODS: Brain activation maps in response to high-calorie food images and non-food images for 22 healthy, 8-10-years-old children (N = 11/11 for normal weight/obese respectively) were generated and compared between groups. RESULTS: When comparing brain activation differences in response to viewing high-calorie food versus non-food images between normal weight and obese children, group differences were observed in areas related to memory and cognitive control. Specifically, normal weight children showed higher activation of posterior parahippocampal gyri (PPHG) and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC). Further ROI analyses indicated higher activation strength (Z scores) in the right PPHG (p = 0.01) and higher activation strength (p < 0.001) as well as a larger activation area (p = 0.02) in the DMPFC in normal weight than obese children. CONCLUSIONS: Normal weight and obese children process high-calorie food stimuli differently even from a young age. Normal weight children exhibit increased brain activation in regions associated with memory and cognitive control when viewing high-calorie food images.

Human Breast-Milk Feeding Enhances the Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Response in Neonatal Piglets.

Background: The benefits of breastfeeding infants are well characterized, including those on the immune system. However, determining the mechanism by which human breast milk (HBM) elicits effects on immune response requires investigation in an appropriate animal model. Objective: The primary aim of this study was to develop a novel porcine model and to determine the differential effects of feeding HBM and a commercial milk formula (MF) on immune response and gastrointestinal microbial colonization in a controlled environment. Methods: Male piglets were fed HBM (n = 26) or MF (n = 26) from day 2 through day 21. Piglets were vaccinated (n = 9/diet group) with cholera toxin and cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) and tetanus toxoid at 21 d or were fed placebo (n = 6/diet group) and then weaned to a standard solid diet at the age of 21 d. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses were assessed from blood on days 35 and 48. Immune response was further examined from tissues, including mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), Peyer's patches (PPs), and spleen. The colonization of gut microbiota was characterized from feces on days 16 and 49. Results: Serum antibody titers in piglets fed HBM were 4-fold higher (P < 0.05) to CTB and 3-fold higher (P < 0.05) to tetanus toxoid compared with piglets fed MF on day 48. Compared with MF, the numbers of immunoglobulin A antibody-producing cells to CTB were 13-fold higher (P < 0.05) in MLNs and 11-fold higher (P < 0.05) in PPs in the HBM diet group on day 51. In addition, significantly increased T cell proliferation was observed in the HBM group relative to the MF group. Furthermore, microbial diversity in the HBM group was lower (P < 0.05) than in the MF group. Conclusions: This porcine model appears to be valid for studying the effects of early postnatal diet on immune responses and the gastrointestinal microbiome. Our results lay the groundwork for future studies defining the role of infant diet on microbiota and immune function.