Processing parameters in breadmaking and bioaccessibility of acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural.

This study aimed to evaluate the fate in digestive steps, bioaccessibility and diffusion of acrylamide (AA) and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in bread samples produced under different processing parameters. AA and 5-HMF were determined in every sample ready-to-eat, after every digestion step and in the digested after crossing the dialysis membrane. The contaminants were extracted by QuEChERS method and determined by HPLC-PDA. Doubling fermentation time (from 60 to 120 min) increased the level of AA by 1.2-fold, and it decreased the level of 5-HMF by 1.4-fold. A combination of 60 min fermentation and 20 min baking led to the lowest levels of AA (1.71 mg/kg) and 5-HMF (0.50 mg/kg). There was no increase in AA level in the gastric stage however, the 5-HMF level increased. Both contaminant levels had increased in the intestinal stage. This fact showed that the determination of the contaminants in the ready-to-eat product did not reflect their actual bioaccessibility because the digestive enzymes and pH variation may affect the release and detection of AA and 5-HMF accumulated in the baking stage. The initial levels of 5-HMF were correlated to the baking time, and initial levels of AA were correlated to the fermentation time. From the bioaccessible levels of AA and 5-HMF, approximately 90 % (5 mg/kg) and 100 % (6.5 mg/kg) crossed the dialysis membrane respectively. Initial and bioaccessible levels of AA were above the security recommendations for bread (50 µg/kg), which is a concern considering the daily consumption of this food. This study showed that focusing on a combination of processing parameters could be a promising strategy to decrease the bioaccessibility of both contaminants in bread.

Pasta cooking influence on in vitro bioaccessibility of type B trichothecenes, acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural.

The study evaluated the effect of cooking time on the levels of type B trichothecenes (TCTB), acrylamide (AA) and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in semolina pasta and their bioaccessibilities in order to propose strategies to reduce the daily exposure of these natural and processing contaminants. Three brands of commercial pasta were submitted to different cooking times (7, 10 and 13 min). Subsequently, the in vitro bioaccessibility trials, permeation across the intestinal membrane and estimation of daily exposure were carried out. The lowest cooking time (7 min) resulted in high reductions of TCTB (88%) and AA + HMF (76.7%) contents found on the raw pasta. The concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) and AA were higher after the digestion (bioaccessibilities >100%) than after the pasta cooking. About 25.6% of DON and 100% of AA found in the small intestine digestible fraction were able to permeate the intestinal membrane. The risk of exposure was below the recommended safe limits since the estimated daily exposure values were 0.22 µg/kg per body weight/day for DON and 0.26 µg/kg per body weight/day for AA. Therefore, cooking pasta for 7 min at a pasta:water ratio of 1:10 (w/v) mitigates the contaminants and promotes the greater formation of resistant starch.

Acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural in cakes: An approach to reduce the formation of processing contaminants in sweet bakery products.

In bakery products, beyond the heat treatment conditions, the type of flour and the combination with other ingredients in different ratios can increase or mitigate the formation of processing contaminants. In this study, a central composite design and a principal component analysis (PCA) were used to assess how the formulation affects the formation of acrylamide (AA) and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in wholemeal and white cakes. The HMF levels (45-138 µg/kg) were up to 13 times lower than the AA (393-970 µg/kg) in cakes. The PCA showed that the proteins increased the AA formation during the dough baking, while the reducing sugar and the browning index were related to HMF formation in the cake crust. The total daily exposure of AA + HMF when consuming wholemeal cake is 1.8 times higher than white cake consumption, in which the values of margin of exposure (MOE), below < 10,000, demonstrated that AA showed a greater risk of exposure than HMF (MOE values > 10,000). Therefore, a good strategy to avoid high AA levels in cakes is to use of refined wheat flour and water in the formulation. In contrast, the advantage of wholemeal cake about their nutritional value should not be disregarded, thus, the use of water in its preparation and moderate consumption are strategies that could be adopted to reduce the risk of exposure to AA.

Processing contaminants in wheat-based foods - a systematic review, meta-analysis and bibliometric analysis.

Wheat is one of the main cereals grown around the world and is the basis for several foods such as bread, cakes and pasta. The consumption of these foods raises a concern with food safety, as toxic substances such as acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are formed during their processing. To assess the occurrence of processing contaminants in wheat-based foods, a systematic search was carried out in four databases: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Scopus. Of the 1479 results, 28 were included for a meta-analysis. Most studies (69.7%) evaluated acrylamide in bread, cookies, and pasta, while PAHs (26.2%) were determined mainly in wheat grains and pasta. HMF was the least determined contaminant (4.1%), with only four studies on cookies included in the meta-analysis. The highest concentration was for acrylamide (136.29 µg·kg-1) followed by HMF (70.59 µg·kg-1) and PAHs (0.11 µg·kg-1). Acrylamide is the main processing contaminant researched, and no studies on the subject have been found in commercial samples in some regions of the world. This result shows a gap in the dates available about process contaminants in wheat-based foods and how the levels can change depending on the process parameters and the ingredients used.

Simultaneous distribution of aflatoxins B1 and B2, and fumonisin B1 in corn fractions during dry and wet-milling.

One of the limitations of the use of corn in the food chain is its contamination with mycotoxins. Reduction in their levels can be achieved by processing the grain, which in the case of corn can be achieved by wet or dry milling. The aim of this study was to compare the distribution of aflatoxins B1 and B2, and fumonisin B1 in corn fractions obtained by dry and wet milling, aiming to identify conditions to mitigate the risk of exposure to these contaminants. Naturally, contaminated corn kernels were subjected to laboratory milling. The wet-milling conditions containing 1% lactic acid in the steeping solution and 18 h of steeping were the most efficient for mycotoxin reduction in the endosperm fraction, reducing aflatoxins B1 and B2 contamination to levels below the limit of quantification. Dry-milling reduced the concentration of these mycotoxins in the endosperm (98-99%). Fumonisin B1 contamination increased in the germ and pericarp fraction by more than three times in both dry and wet milling. Dry-milling reduced fumonisin B1 contamination in the endosperm to levels below the limit of quantitation. Wet and dry milling processes can be an efficient control method to reduce aflatoxins and fumonisin in the corn endosperm fraction. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05373-9.

Toxicity evaluation of traditional and organic yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) extracts.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) is an important source of biologically active compounds with pharmacological potential. The aim of this study was to examine the toxicity of different extracts obtained from either traditional or organic cultivated yerba mate in vitro and in vivo. Aqueous, ethanolic and methanolic extracts were obtained from commercial samples of yerba mate and total phenolic content was determined employing Folin-Ciocalteau reagent. The aqueous extracts presented higher content of total phenols, compared to ethanolic and methanolic extracts, and also demonstrated lower cytotoxicity, which is the basis for testing were carried out only using aqueous extracts. The main phenolic acids found in traditional aqueous (TA) extract were chlorogenic, gallic and protocatechuic acids. Gallic and hydroxybenzoic acids were detected in aqueous cultivated organic (OA) extract. Pretreatment with OA extract (100 µg/ml, 1 hr) was cytoprotective against rotenone-induced toxicity (1 µM). For in vivo toxicity assay, zebrafish embryos were exposed to OA or TA extracts (10-160 µg/ml) at 4 hr post fertilization. TA extract decreased embryos survival in a concentration-dependent manner, reduced the hatching rate at 40 µg/ml, increased edema frequency at 80 µg/ml and altered body curvature at 120 µg/ml. Further, TA extract produced locomotor disorders at concentrations equal to or greater than 10 µg/ml. In contrast, OA extract exhibited no apparent toxic effect on organogenesis and behavior up to 100 µg/ml. In summary, the OA cultivated extract showed the lowest cytotoxicity in vitro, enhanced reduction in rotenone-induced toxicity, and produced less toxicity in zebrafish embryos compared to the TA extract.

Mushroom extract of Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Sf. Gray as biopesticide: Antifungal activity and toxicological analysis.

Monilinia fructicola (Wint.) Honey is a plant pathogenic fungus that infects stone fruits such as peach, nectarine and plum, which are high demand cultivars found in Brazil. This pathogen may remain latent in the host, showing no apparent signs of disease, and consequently may spread to different countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the activity of hydroalcoholic extract (HydE) obtained from Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Sf. Gray a mushroom, against M. fructicola phytopathogenic-induced mycelial growth. In addition, the purpose of this study was to examine phytotoxicity attributed to HydE using Brassica oleracea seeds, as well as cytotoxic analysis of this extract on cells of mouse BALB/c monocyte macrophage cell line (J774A.1 cell line) (ATCC TIB-67). The L. deliciosus HydE inhibited fungal growth and reduced phytopathogen mycelial development at a concentration of 1.25 mg/ml. Our results demonstrated that the extract exhibited phytotoxicity as evidenced by (1) interference on germination percentage and rate index, (2) decreased root and initial growth measures, and (3) lower fresh weight of seedlings but no cytotoxicity in Vero cell lines. Data suggest that the use of the L. deliciosus extracts may be beneficial for fungal control without any apparent adverse actions on mouse BALB/c monocyte macrophage cell line (J774A.1 cell line) viability.

Phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of Pediastrum boryanum (Chlorococcales) biomass.

Bioactive compounds, synthesized by photosynthetic microorganisms, have drawn the attention of the pharmaceutical field. This study aimed at evaluating synthesis and in vitro antioxidant capacity of phenolic compounds produced by a microalgae species P. boryanum, which was grown in six different culture media (standard BG11, modified BG11/MBG11, standard WC, modified WC, WC*2 and basal). The highest concentrations of biomass (1.75 ± 0.01 g.L-1) and phenolic content (3.18 ± 0.00 mg.g-1) were obtained when P. boryanum was grown in MBG11 and phenolic acids were identified: gallic, protocatechuic, chlorogenic, hydroxybenzoic and vanillic ones. All extracts exhibited scavenger activity in the ABTS assay and inhibited peroxidase. However, phenolic compounds from P. boryanum grown in BG11 and MBG11 had the most potent scavenger activity in the DPPH assay. In sum, P. boryanum can be a new source of free phenolic compounds with potential antioxidant activity when grown in MBG11, since it yields high amounts of biomass and phenolic compounds.

Biological contamination of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and its impact on food safety.

The occurrence of biological contaminants in common beans is a challenge for food safety, as they can affect the bean at different points in the production chain. Their presence can result in damage to the health of consumers through their direct toxic effect or by promoting nutritional deficiencies, in addition to decreasing the crop yield that has an economic impact. In this article, the information available in the literature on the occurrence of biological contaminants in the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was organized to identify the main risks to food safety due to biological contamination. Research showed that many studies investigated the effects of microbial contaminants during the farming and harvested of beans and that some strategies have been used to avoid losses. The presence of toxigenic fungi and some mycotoxins have also been reported, indicating that common beans may carry thermostable toxic residues, directly impacting human health. Further studies are needed to identify the role of microorganisms in determining the quality of common beans and to estimate their risks to food safety. HighlightsBeans can be contaminated by biological agents.Plants infected with parasites may be highly susceptible to other contaminants.Micotoxicologic contamination is less prevalent in beans than other grains.There are strategies to decrease the risk of bacterial contamination in beans.

Stability of fumonisin B1 and its bioaccessibility in extruded corn-based products.

Fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins commonly associated with corn-based products and require innovative alternatives to control exposure to its toxicity. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of amylose and resistant starch on fumonisin B1 (FB1) levels in extruded corn-based products as well as the toxin bioaccessibility upon digestion. Cornmeal contaminated with FB1 (1.5 µg/g) was extruded alone or combined with high-amylose corn starch (20%, w/w). FB1 was quantified both in the unextruded and extruded products by HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) fluorescence detector with pre-column derivatization. Samples were then subjected to an in vitro digestion model to evaluate the stability of the interaction between FB1 and the corn matrix extruded. The addition of high-amylose corn starch further reduced the detection of FB1 (74.9%), when compared with the effect of the extrusion alone (66.0%), confirming the binding of FB1 with the macromolecules or resistant starch. The bound fumonisin was stable upon simulated gastric digestion, and the duodenal bioaccessibility of free FB1 was lower than 35% when high-amylose corn starch ingredient was used in the product. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that high-amylose corn starch and resistant starch content influenced the reduction of FB1 and its duodenal bioaccessibility. This study for the first time shows that addition of high-amylose corn starch during extrusion is an innovative strategy to reduce FB1 release under digestive conditions, therefore useful in mitigating the exposure to this mycotoxin.

Defatted Rice Bran as a Potential Raw Material to Improve the Nutritional and Functional Quality of Cakes.

Cakes are the most popular bakery items around the world because they are easy to consume and affordable. Their baking characteristics and consumers' healthy habits have driven the adoption of new ingredients and technologies to improve their functionality. This study aimed to develop cakes in which wheat flour was replaced by different amounts of defatted rice bran and to evaluate their physicochemical composition, nutritional and technological properties, and sensory profile. The use of defatted rice bran in cakes promoted an increase in fiber content, phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity, besides decreasing their energy value. The formulation with 30% defatted rice bran exhibited high acceptance and 35% of the judges declared that they would consume the product at least once a week, if it could be found on the market. Results showed that defatted rice bran is a potential raw material that could be used in bakery products, as a cheap way to improve their nutritional quality without affecting consumer acceptability.

Use of natural resources from Southern Brazil as a strategy to mitigate fungal contamination.

Contamination of food by fungi can result in changes in sensory characteristics, as well as rapid reduction in quality and consequently the infeasibility of using contaminated material. In addition, contamination can pose a danger to public health, as in addition to decreasing the availability of nutrients, some fungal species can produce toxic substances. Much research has explored the use of natural resources to prevent or mitigate microbial contamination. Recovery of chemicals from many families from plants and microorganisms has been evaluated. Phenolic compounds are the most studied class on the premise that they have the capacity to inhibit endogenous and exogenous biological degradation processes. In this manuscript, we intend to emphasize the biochemical and experimental evidence of the phenolic compounds present in natural resources from the South of Brazil that have potential to be used in strategies to mitigate the consequences of fungal contamination. The crude phenolic extracts from natural resources (plant portion and microorganisms) of the Southern Brazilian region should be better exploited, to propose strategies to scale up their application in food industries because they have demonstrated an ability to inhibit fungal development without promoting stress and consequent mycotoxin production.

Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of the Microalga Pediastrum boryanum in Carrageenan-Induced Rat Paw Edema

Abstract The potential use of microalgae in health has been the aim of different studies in the last years. This study investigated anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of three different extracts of green microalga Pediastrum boryanum in an acute inflammation model in rats. Rats were treated intraperitoneally with lyophilized biomass, the phenolic compounds and the extracellular extracts of P. boryanum before the induction of paw edema by the intraplantar injection of carrageenan. The edema and the levels of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α were determined in the hind paw. Oxidative stress markers were analyzed in the liver and hepatic toxicity and genetic damage was evaluated in the blood. The results demonstrated that the three extracts of P. boryanum exhibited pronounced anti-oedematous property and decreased the levels of cytokines. The best results were provided by the phenolic compounds extract, that contains gallic, chlorogenic, protocathecuic and vanillic acid. A reduction in lipid peroxidation was observed after the treatment with lyophilized biomass and the extracellular extract improved the total antioxidant capacity of the liver. Moreover, no DNA damage and hepatic toxicity were observed after administration of P. boryanum extracts. In conclusion, these results suggest that P. boryanum can be an important source of anti-inflammatory compounds.

Evaluation of the influence of cultivation on the total magnesium concentration and infusion extractability in commercial arabica coffee.

Coffee is considered an important source of organic nutrients and minerals, and these resources are strongly affected by agricultural management. Among the minerals, the element Mg is important, which is essential for both plants and humans. In this work, the effects of agricultural management on the absorption and storage of Mg by commercial, ground, roasted Arabica coffee were investigated. For this purpose, some Mg and P fractions were evaluated. It was observed that Mg stored in the grain was concentrated in the inorganic fraction, with an average extraction of 102% and in conventional samples and 119% in organic samples. These results suggest that in these samples Mg is probably largely presented as different inorganic salts. Phytate and organic acid salts are two possibilities discussed in this work that could explain this hypothesis. This can be corroborated by the extraction of Mg in the infusion of hot water.

Peroxidase as a simultaneous degradation agent of ochratoxin A and zearalenone applied to model solution and beer.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the action of the commercial peroxidase (POD) enzyme (Armoracia rusticana) on the simultaneous degradation of ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEA) in model solution and beer. For this purpose, the reaction parameters for POD action were optimized, POD application in the degradation of mycotoxins in model solution and beer was evaluated and the kinetic parameters of POD were defined (Michaelis-Menten constant - KM and maximal velocity - Vmax). In the reaction conditions (pH 7, ionic strength of 25 mM, incubation at 30 °C, addition of 26 mM H2O2 and 1 mM potassium ion), POD (0.6 U mL-1) presented the maximum activity for simultaneous degradation of OTA and ZEA of 27.0 and 64.9%, respectively, in model solution after 360 min. The application of POD in beer resulted in the simultaneous degradation of OTA and ZEA of 4.8 and 10.9%, respectively. The kinetic parameters KM and Vmax for degradation of OTA and ZEA were 50 and 10,710 nM and 0.168 and 72 nM min-1, respectively. Therefore, POD can be a promising alternative to mitigate the contamination of OTA and ZEA in model solution and beer, minimizing their effects in humans.

Antioxidant and antifungal activity of phenolic compounds and their relation to aflatoxin B1 occurrence in soybeans (Glycine max L.).

BACKGROUND: Soybean is widely used in food formulations; however, few studies on fungal or mycotoxin contamination have been undertaken. Free, conjugated, and bound phenolic compounds, and their antioxidant and antifungal potential, were therefore evaluated together with the occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) in soybeans. RESULTS: The conjugated and bound phenolic soybean extracts were more efficient for the inhibition of the 2,2 diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical, the peroxidase enzyme, and the fungal α-amylase enzyme. Aflatoxin B1, detected at low levels (0.96 to 1.67 ng g-1 ), confirmed the protective effect of soybean phenolic compounds against mycotoxigenic contamination. Principal component analysis confirmed that syringic, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric acids and vanillin were essential for antioxidant and antifungal activities. CONCLUSION: This study presented new insights into the functionality of phenolic compounds in soybeans, regarding their potential to protect the crops naturally against fungal contamination, avoiding aflatoxin production, as attested by the correlations between phenolic compounds and antioxidant mechanisms. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Inhibition of in vitro trichothecenes production by microalgae phenolic extracts.

There is evidence that microalgae phenolic compounds can inhibit the growth of toxigenic fungi. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of microalgae phenolic extracts to inhibit trichothecene production by Fusarium genus and thereby identify parameters that can promote a new technology to avoid contamination of crops by mycotoxins. The microalgae phenolic acids (Spirulina sp. and Nannochloropsis sp.) were extracted with methanol, clarified and resuspended in water. The in vitro experiment involved adding the phenolic extract from each microalga (40 µg/mL) to Petri dishes containing culture medium and previously sterilized wheat grains, with subsequent inoculation of an isolate belonging to the F. graminearum species complex. The control was cultured with sterile water. Treatment with the fungicide tebuconazole (0.6 mg/mL) was also performed. Petri dishes were incubated at 25 °C, with a light/dark photoperiod of 12-12 h. After 168 h, the samples were extracted by the adapted QuEChERS method; the trichothecenes (nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and acetylates) were identified and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography. When the phenolic extracts from microalgae were applied, the characteristic peak of nivalenol was not detected, suggesting total inhibition, whereas, the nivalenol content increased (15%) in the presence of tebuconazole. Both microalgae phenolic extracts also had a promising effect on the inhibition of deoxynivalenol, with no detection (Nannochloropsis sp. extract) and 62% reduction (Spirulina sp. extract). The application of the fungicide tebuconazole increased the deoxynivalenol concentration. Both microalgae phenolic extracts and tebuconazole decreased the detection of acetylates. Thus, phenolic extracts from microalgae were more efficient than tebuconazole as antifungal and antimycotoxigenic agents in cultures in vitro.

Ozone technology to reduce zearalenone contamination in whole maize flour: degradation kinetics and impact on quality.

BACKGROUND: Maize is one of the most important cereals. It is used for different purposes and in different industries worldwide. This cereal is prone to contamination with mycotoxins, such as zearalenone (ZEN), which is produced mainly by Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and F. equiseti. Toxin production under highly moist conditions (aw > 0.95) is exacerbated if there are alternations between low temperatures (12-14 °C) and high temperatures (25-28 °C). Even if good production practices are adopted, mycotoxins can be found in several stages of the production chain. For this reason, an alternative to reducing this contamination is ozonation. This study evaluated the reduction of ZEN in naturally contaminated whole maize flour (WMF) treated with 51.5 mg L-1 of ozone for up to 60 min. Pasting properties, peroxide value, and fatty acid composition were also evaluated. RESULTS: Zearalenone degradation in ozonated WMF was described by a fractional first-order kinetic, with a maximum reduction of 62.3% and kinetic parameter of 0.201 min-1 in the conditions that were evaluated. The ozonation process in WMF showed a decrease in the apparent viscosity, a decrease in the proportion of linoleic, oleic, and α-linolenic fatty acids, an increase in the proportion of palmitic acid, and an increase in the peroxide value. CONCLUSION: Ozonation was effective in reducing ZEN contamination in WMF. However, it also modified the pasting properties, fatty acid profile, and peroxide value, affecting functional and technological aspects of WMF. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Nannochloropsis sp. and Spirulina sp. as a Source of Antifungal Compounds to Mitigate Contamination by Fusarium graminearum Species Complex.

Phenolic (free, conjugated and bound) and carotenoid extracts from microalgae Nannochloropsis sp. and Spirulina sp. were investigated regarding their potential to mitigate contamination by Fusarium complex fungal pathogens. Free phenolic acid extracts from both microalgae were the most efficient, promoting the lowest mycelial growth rates of 0.51 cm day- 1 (Spirulina sp.) and 0.78 cm day- 1 (Nannochloropsis sp.). An experiment involving natural free phenolic acid extracts and synthetic solutions was carried out based on the natural phenolic acid profile. The results revealed that the synthetic mixtures of phenolic acids from both microalgae were less efficient than the natural extracts at inhibiting fungal growth, indicating that no purification is required. The half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values of 49.6 µg mL- 1 and 33.9 µg mL- 1 were determined for the Nannochloropsis and Spirulina phenolic acid extracts, respectively. The use of phenolic extracts represents a new perspective regarding the application of compounds produced by marine biotechnology to prevent Fusarium species contamination.

Aflatoxin M1 and B1 in Colombian milk powder and estimated risk exposure.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were determined in 51 milk powder samples purchased from different grocery stores located in the Caribbean region of Colombia. Analysis was conducted using QuEChERS extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Results from the analytical method showed recovery ranges from 65% to 110% and relative standard deviations lower than 20%. AFM1 was detected in 100% of the milk samples (0.20-1.19 µg/kg) and 55% exceeded the maximum level in milk (0.5 µg/kg) set by the Colombian and European regulations. AFB1 was not detected in any of the analysed samples. Considering the measured contamination the maximum AFM1 level that can be ingested by consumption of milk powder is 0.007-0.013 µg/person/day. These values are above the average dietary intake estimated in Latin America according to the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee, which is 0.0035 µg/person/day.