Influence of Chitin Source and Polymorphism on Powder Compression and Compaction: Application in Drug Delivery.

The objective of the research reported herein is to compare the compaction properties of three different chitin extracts from the organisms most used in the seafood industry; namely crabs, shrimps and squids. The foregoing is examined in relation to their polymorphic forms as well as compression and compaction behavior. Chitin extracted from crabs and shrimps exhibits the α-polymorphic form whilst chitin extracted from squid pins displays a ß-polymorphic form. These polymorphs were characterized using FTIR, X-ray powder diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. Pore diameter and volume differ between the two polymorphic powder forms. The ß form is smaller in pore diameter and volume. Scanning electron microscopy of the two polymorphic forms shows clear variation in the arrangement of chitin layers such that the α form appears more condensed due to the anti-parallel arrangement of the polymer chains. True, bulk and tapped densities of these polymorphs and their mixtures indicated poor flowability. Nevertheless, compression and compaction properties obtained by applying Heckle and Kawakita analyses indicated that both polymorphs are able to be compacted with differences in the extent of compaction. Chitin compacts, regardless of their origin, showed a very high crushing strength with very fast dissolution which makes them suitable for use as fast mouth dissolving tablets. Moreover, when different chitin powders are granulated with two model drugs, i.e., metronidazole and spiramycin they yielded high crushing strength and their dissolution profiles were in accordance with compendial requirements. It is concluded that the source of chitin extraction is as important as the polymorphic form when compression and compaction of chitin powders is carried out.

Elucidation of the Controlled-Release Behavior of Metoprolol Succinate from Directly Compressed Xanthan Gum/Chitosan Polymers: Computational and Experimental Studies.

The development and evaluation of a controlled-release (CR) pharmaceutical solid dosage form comprising xanthan gum (XG), low molecular weight chitosan (LCS), and metoprolol succinate (MS) are reported. The research is, partly, based upon the utilization of computational tools: in this case, molecular dynamics simulations (MDs) and the response surface method (RSM) in order to underpin the design/prediction and to minimize the experimental work required to achieve the desired pharmaceutical outcomes. The capability of the system to control the release of MS was studied as a function of LCS (% w/w) and total polymer (LCS and xanthan gum (XG)) to drug ratio (P/D) at different tablet tensile strengths. MDs trajectories, obtained by using different ratios of XG/LCS as well as XG and high molecular weight chitosan (HCS), showed that the driving force for the interaction between XG and LCS is electrostatic in nature, the most favorable complex is formed when LCS is used at 15% (w/w) and, importantly, the interaction between XG and LCS is more favorable than that between XG and HCS. RSM outputs revealed that the release of the drug from the LCS/XG matrix is highly dependent on both the % LCS and the P/D ratio and that the required CR effect can be achieved when using weight fractions of LCS ≤ 20% and P/D ratios ≥2.6:1. Results obtained from in vitro drug release and swelling studies on the prepared tablets showed that using LCS at the weight fractions suggested by MDs and RSM data plays a major role in overcoming the high sensitivity of the controlled drug release effect of XG on ionic strength and pH changes of the dissolution media. In addition, it was found that polymer relaxation is the major contributor to the release of MS from LCS/XG tablets. Using Raman spectroscopy, MS was shown to be localized more in the core of the tablets at the initial stages of dissolution due to film formation between LCS and XG on the tablet surface, which prevents excess water penetration into the matrix. In the later stages of the dissolution process, the film starts to dissolve/erode, allowing full tablet hydration and a uniform drug distribution in the swollen tablet.

Low Molecular Weight Chitosan-Insulin Complexes Solubilized in a Mixture of Self-Assembled Labrosol and Plurol Oleaque and Their Glucose Reduction Activity in Rats.

Oral insulin delivery that better mimics physiological pathways is a necessity as it ensures patient comfort and compliance. A system which is based on a vehicle of nano order where positively charged chitosan interacts with negatively charged insulin and forms a polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) solubilizate, which is then solubilized into an oily phase of oleic acid, labrasol, and plurol oleaque-protects insulin against enzymatic gastrointestinal reduction. The use of an anionic fatty acid in the oily phase, such as oleic acid, is thought to allow an interaction with cationic chitosan, hence reducing particle size. Formulations were assessed based on their hypoglycaemic capacities in diabetic rats as compared to conventional subcutaneous dosage forms. 50 IU/kg oral insulin strength could only induce blood glucose reduction equivalent to that of 5 IU/kg (1 International unit = 0.0347 mg of human insulin). Parameters that influence the pharmacological availability were evaluated. A preliminary investigation of the mechanism of absorption suggests the involvement of the lymphatic route.

Ultra-high resolution X-ray structures of two forms of human recombinant insulin at 100 K.

The crystal structure of a commercially available form of human recombinant (HR) insulin, Insugen (I), used in the treatment of diabetes has been determined to 0.92 Å resolution using low temperature, 100 K, synchrotron X-ray data collected at 16,000 keV (λ = 0.77 Å). Refinement carried out with anisotropic displacement parameters, removal of main-chain stereochemical restraints, inclusion of H atoms in calculated positions, and 220 water molecules, converged to a final value of R = 0.1112 and Rfree = 0.1466. The structure includes what is thought to be an ordered propanol molecule (POL) only in chain D(4) and a solvated acetate molecule (ACT) coordinated to the Zn atom only in chain B(2). Possible origins and consequences of the propanol and acetate molecules are discussed. Three types of amino acid representation in the electron density are examined in detail: (i) sharp with very clearly resolved features; (ii) well resolved but clearly divided into two conformations which are well behaved in the refinement, both having high quality geometry; (iii) poor density and difficult or impossible to model. An example of type (ii) is observed for the intra-chain disulphide bridge in chain C(3) between Sγ6-Sγ11 which has two clear conformations with relative refined occupancies of 0.8 and 0.2, respectively. In contrast the corresponding S-S bridge in chain A(1) shows one clearly defined conformation. A molecular dynamics study has provided a rational explanation of this difference between chains A and C. More generally, differences in the electron density features between corresponding residues in chains A and C and chains B and D is a common observation in the Insugen (I) structure and these effects are discussed in detail. The crystal structure, also at 0.92 Å and 100 K, of a second commercially available form of human recombinant insulin, Intergen (II), deposited in the Protein Data Bank as 3W7Y which remains otherwise unpublished is compared here with the Insugen (I) structure. In the Intergen (II) structure there is no solvated propanol or acetate molecule. The electron density of Intergen (II), however, does also exhibit the three types of amino acid representations as in Insugen (I). These effects do not necessarily correspond between chains A and C or chains B and D in Intergen (II), or between corresponding residues in Insugen (I). The results of this comparison are reported. Graphical abstract Conformations of PheB25 and PheD25 in three insulin structures: implications for biological activity? Insulin residues PheB25 and PheD25 are considered to be important for insulin receptor binding and changes in biological activity occur when these residues are modified. In porcine insulin and Intergen (II) PheB25 adopts conformation B and PheD25 conformation D. However, unexpectedly PheB25 in Insugen (I) human recombinant insulin adopts two distinct conformations corresponding to B and D, Figure 1 and PheD25 adopts a single conformation corresponding to B not D, Figure 2. Conformations of this residue in the ultra-high resolution structure of Insugen (I) are therefore unique within this set. Figures were produced with Biovia, Discovery Studio 2016.

Effect of Protonation State and N-Acetylation of Chitosan on Its Interaction with Xanthan Gum: A Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study.

Hydrophilic matrices composed of chitosan (CS) and xanthan gum (XG) complexes are of pharmaceutical interest in relation to drug delivery due to their ability to control the release of active ingredients. Molecular dynamics simulations (MDs) have been performed in order to obtain information pertaining to the effect of the state of protonation and degree of N-acetylation (DA) on the molecular conformation of chitosan and its ability to interact with xanthan gum in aqueous solutions. The conformational flexibility of CS was found to be highly dependent on its state of protonation. Upon complexation with XG, a substantial restriction in free rotation around the glycosidic bond was noticed in protonated CS dimers regardless of their DA, whereas deprotonated molecules preserved their free mobility. Calculated values for the free energy of binding between CS and XG revealed the dominant contribution of electrostatic forces on the formation of complexes and that the most stable complexes were formed when CS was at least half-protonated and the DA was ≤50%. The results obtained provide an insight into the main factors governing the interaction between CS and XG, such that they can be manipulated accordingly to produce complexes with the desired controlled-release effect.

Glucosamine modulates propranolol pharmacokinetics via intestinal permeability in rats.

Propranolol (PROP) undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism by the liver resulting in a relatively low bioavailability (13-23%); thus, multiple oral doses are required to achieve therapeutic effect. Since some studies have reported that glucosamine (GlcN) can increase the bioavailability of some drugs, therefore, it is aimed to study whether GlcN can change the pharmacokinetic parameters of PROP, thus modulating its bioavailability. When PROP was orally co-administered with GlcN (200mg/kg) to rats, PROP area under curve (AUC) and maximum concentration (Cmax) were significantly decreased by 43% (p<0.01) and 33% (p<0.05), respectively. In line with the in vivo results, in silico simulations confirmed that GlcN decreased rat intestinal effective permeability (Peff) and increased PROP clearance by 50%. However, in situ single pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) experiments showed that GlcN significantly increased PROP serum levels (p<0.05). Furthermore, GlcN decreased PROP disposition/distribution into cultured hepatocytes in concentration dependent manner. Such change in the interaction pattern between GlcN and PROP might be attributed to the environment of the physiological buffer used in the in vitro experiments (pH7.2) versus the oral administration and thus, enhanced PROP permeability. Nevertheless, such enhancement was not detected when everted gut sacks were incubated with both drugs at the same pH in vitro. In conclusion, GlcN decreased PROP serum levels in rats in a dose-dependent manner. Such interaction might be attributed to decreased intestinal permeability and enhanced clearance of PROP in the presence of GlcN. Further investigations are still warranted to explain the in vitro inhibitory action of GlcN on PROP hepatocytes disposition and the involvement of GlcN in the intestinal and hepatic metabolizing enzymes of PROP at different experimental conditions.

Preparation of Chito-Oligomers by Hydrolysis of Chitosan in the Presence of Zeolite as Adsorbent.

An increasing interest has recently been shown to use chitin/chitosan oligomers (chito-oligomers) in medicine and food fields because they are not only water-soluble, nontoxic, and biocompatible materials, but they also exhibit numerous biological properties, including antibacterial, antifungal, and antitumor activities, as well as immuno-enhancing effects on animals. Conventional depolymerization methods of chitosan to chito-oligomers are either chemical by acid-hydrolysis under harsh conditions or by enzymatic degradation. In this work, hydrolysis of chitosan to chito-oligomers has been achieved by applying adsorption-separation technique using diluted HCl in the presence of different types of zeolite as adsorbents. The chito-oligomers were retrieved from adsorbents and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LC/MS), and ninhydrin test.

Influence of glucosamine on the bioactivity of insulin delivered subcutaneously and in an oral nanodelivery system.

The aim of the work reported herein was to study the effect of glucosamine HCl (GlcN·HCl) on the bioactivity (BA) of insulin, administered via subcutaneous (SC) and oral routes, in adult male Sprague Dawley rats. The oral insulin delivery system (insulin-chitosan reverse micelle [IC-RM]) was prepared by solubilizing insulin-chitosan (13 kDa) polyelectrolyte complex in a RM system consisting of oleic acid, PEG-8 caprylic/capric glycerides, and polyglycerol-6-dioleate. The BA of insulin in vivo was evaluated by measuring blood glucose level using a blood glucose meter; the results revealed that the extent of hypoglycemic activity of SC insulin was GlcN·HCl dose dependent when they were administered simultaneously. A significant reduction in blood glucose levels (P<0.05) was found for the insulin:GlcN·HCl at mass ratios of 1:10 and 1:20, whereas lower ratios (eg, 1:1 and 1:4) showed no significant reduction. Furthermore, enhancement of the action of SC insulin was achieved by oral administration of GlcN·HCl for 5 consecutive days prior to insulin injection (P<0.05). For oral insulin administration via the IC-RM system, the presence of GlcN·HCl increased the hypoglycemic activity of insulin (P<0.05). The relative BA were 6.7% and 5.4% in the presence and absence of GlcN·HCl (ie, the increase in the relative BA was approximately 23% due to incorporating GlcN·HCl in the IC-RM system), respectively. The aforementioned findings offer an opportunity to incorporate GlcN·HCl in oral insulin delivery systems in order to enhance a reduction in blood glucose levels.

Prasugrel Hydrochloride.

A comprehensive profile of prasugrel HCl is reported herein with 158 references. A full description including nomenclature, formulae, elemental analysis, and appearance is included. Methods of preparation for prasugrel HCl, its intermediates, and derivatives are fully discussed. In addition, the physical properties, analytical methods, stability, uses and applications, and pharmacology of prasugrel HCl are also discussed.

Impact of streptozotocin on altering normal glucose homeostasis during insulin testing in diabetic rats compared to normoglycemic rats.

Streptozotocin (STZ) is currently the most used diabetogenic agent in testing insulin and new antidiabetic drugs in animals. Due to the toxic and disruptive nature of STZ on organs, apart from pancreas, involved in preserving the body's normal glucose homeostasis, this study aims to reassess the action of STZ in inducing different glucose response states in diabetic rats while testing insulin. Diabetic Sprague-Dawley rats induced with STZ were classified according to their initial blood glucose levels into stages. The effect of randomizing rats in such a manner was investigated for the severity of interrupting normal liver, pancreas, and kidney functions. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic actions of subcutaneously injected insulin in diabetic and nondiabetic rats were compared. Interruption of glucose homeostasis by STZ was challenged by single and repeated administrations of injected insulin and oral glucose to diabetic rats. In diabetic rats with high glucose (451-750 mg/dL), noticeable changes were seen in the liver and kidney functions compared to rats with lower basal glucose levels. Increased serum levels of recombinant human insulin were clearly indicated by a significant increase in the calculated maximum serum concentration and area under the concentration-time curve. Reversion of serum glucose levels to normal levels pre- and postinsulin and oral glucose administrations to STZ diabetic rats were found to be variable. In conclusion, diabetic animals were more responsive to insulin than nondiabetic animals. STZ was capable of inducing different levels of normal glucose homeostasis disruption in rats. Both pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic actions of insulin were altered when different initial blood glucose levels of STZ diabetic rats were selected for testing. Such findings emphasize the importance of selecting predefined and unified glucose levels when using STZ as a diabetogenic agent in experimental protocols evaluating new antidiabetic agents and insulin delivery systems.

Influence of glutathione on the bioactivity of subcutaneously or orally administered insulin to rats.

The effect of reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) glutathione on the bioactivity of insulin was studied. A polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) of insulin with low molecular weight chitosan (13 kDa) was prepared and characterized. The PEC was then solubilized, in the presence and absence of GSH and GSSG, in a reverse micelle consisting of oleic acid and two surfactants (PEG-8 caprylic/capric glycerides and polyglycerol-6-dioleate). The in vitro and in vivo performances of the reverse micelle formulations (RMFs) were evaluated in rats. At pH 6.5 the association efficiency of the PEC was 76.2%. In vitro insulin release from the RMs was negligible at pH 1.2 and was markedly increased at pH 6.8. The hypoglycemic activity of insulin in the PEC was reduced when administered via the subcutaneous route, regardless of the GSH content. On the other hand, the presence of GSSG significantly enhanced hypoglycemia. When the RMF was administered via the oral route, the presence of GSH had no effect on the hypoglycemic activity of insulin compared with the GSH free system. However, the presence of GSSG in the oral preparation increased the hypoglycemic activity of insulin; probably by inhibiting insulin degradation, thereby prolonging its effect. Thus, incorporation of GSSG in the RMF reduces blood glucose levels in rats and protects insulin from degradation.

Low molecular weight chitosan-insulin polyelectrolyte complex: characterization and stability studies.

The aim of the work reported herein was to investigate the effect of various low molecular weight chitosans (LMWCs) on the stability of insulin using USP HPLC methods. Insulin was found to be stable in a polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) consisting of insulin and LMWC in the presence of a Tris-buffer at pH 6.5. In the presence of LMWC, the stability of insulin increased with decreasing molecular weight of LMWC; 13 kDa LMWC was the most efficient molecular weight for enhancing the physical and chemical stability of insulin. Solubilization of insulin-LMWC polyelectrolyte complex (I-LMWC PEC) in a reverse micelle (RM) system, administered to diabetic rats, results in an oral delivery system for insulin with acceptable bioactivity.

Co-processed chitin-mannitol as a new excipient for Oro-dispersible tablets.

This study describes the preparation, characterization and performance of a novel excipient for use in oro-dispersible tablets (ODT). The excipient (Cop-CM) consists of chitin and mannitol. The excipient with optimal physicochemical properties was obtained at a chitin: mannitol ratio of 2:8 (w/w) and produced by roll compaction (RC). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform-Infrared (FT-IR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques were used to characterize Cop-CM, in addition to characterization of its powder and ODT dosage form. The effect of particle size distribution of Cop-CM was investigated and found to have no significant influence on the overall tablet physical properties. The compressibility parameter (a) for Cop-CM was calculated from a Kawakita plot and found to be higher (0.661) than that of mannitol (0.576) due to the presence of the highly compressible chitin (0.818). Montelukast sodium and domperidone ODTs produced, using Cop-CM, displayed excellent physicochemical properties. The exceptional binding, fast wetting and superdisintegration properties of Cop-CM, in comparison with commercially available co-processed ODT excipients, results in a unique multifunctional base which can successfully be used in the formulation of oro-dispersible and fast immediate release tablets.

Influence of molecular weight and degree of deacetylation of low molecular weight chitosan on the bioactivity of oral insulin preparations.

The objective of the present study was to prepare and characterize low molecular weight chitosan (LMWC) with different molecular weight and degrees of deacetylation (DDA) and to optimize their use in oral insulin nano delivery systems. Water in oil nanosized systems containing LMWC-insulin polyelectrolyte complexes were constructed and their ability to reduce blood glucose was assessed in vivo on diabetic rats. Upon acid depolymerization and testing by viscosity method, three molecular weights of LMWC namely, 1.3, 13 and 18 kDa were obtained. As for the DDA, three LMWCs of 55%, 80% and 100% DDA were prepared and characterized by spectroscopic methods for each molecular weight. The obtained LMWCs showed different morphological and in silico patterns. Following complexation of LMWCs with insulin, different aggregation sizes were obtained. Moreover, the in vivo tested formulations showed different activities of blood glucose reduction. The highest glucose reduction was achieved with 1.3 kDa LMWC of 55% DDA. The current study emphasizes the importance of optimizing the molecular weight along with the DDA of the incorporated LMWC in oral insulin delivery preparations in order to ensure the highest performance of such delivery systems.

Chitin and chitosan as direct compression excipients in pharmaceutical applications.

Despite the numerous uses of chitin and chitosan as new functional materials of high potential in various fields, they are still behind several directly compressible excipients already dominating pharmaceutical applications. There are, however, new attempts to exploit chitin and chitosan in co-processing techniques that provide a product with potential to act as a direct compression (DC) excipient. This review outlines the compression properties of chitin and chitosan in the context of DC pharmaceutical applications.

Glucosamine enhances paracetamol bioavailability by reducing its metabolism.

Paracetamol has an extensive first-pass metabolism that highly affects its bioavailability (BA); thus, dose may be repeated several times a day in order to have longer efficacy. However, hepatotoxicity may arise because of paracetamol metabolism. Therefore, this project aimed to increase paracetamol BA in rats by glucosamine (GlcN). At GlcN-paracetamol racemic mixture ratio of 4:1 and paracetamol dose of 10 mg/kg, paracetamol area under the curve (AUC) and maximum concentration (Cmax ) were significantly increased by 99% and 66%, respectively (p < 0.05). Furthermore, paracetamol AUC and Cmax levels were increased by 165% and 88% in rats prefed with GlcN for 2 days (p < 0.001). Moreover, GlcN significantly reduced phase Ι and phase I/ΙΙ metabolic reactions in liver homogenate by 48% and 54%, respectively. Furthermore, GlcN molecule was found to possess a good in silico binding mode into the CYP2E1 active site-forming bidentate hydrogen bonding with the Thr303 side chain. Finally, serum ALT and AST levels of rats-administered high doses of paracetamol were significantly reduced when rats were prefed with GlcN (p < 0.01). In conclusion, GlcN can increase the relative BA of paracetamol through reducing its metabolism. This phenomenon is associated with reduction in hepatocytes injury following ingestion of high doses of paracetamol.

Moxifloxacin hydrochloride.

A comprehensive profile of moxifloxacin HCl with 198 references is reported. A full description including nomenclature, formulae, elemental analysis, and appearance is included. Methods of preparation for moxifloxacin HCl, its intermediates, and derivatives are fully described. In addition, the physical properties, analytical methods, stability, uses and applications, and pharmacology of moxifloxacin HCl are also discussed.

Effects of prickly pear dried leaves, artichoke leaves, turmeric and garlic extracts, and their combinations on preventing dyslipidemia in rats.

The successful use of herbal combinations in managing diseases or conditions over a single herb has lead us to evaluate the anti-dyslipidemic properties of the combination of the artichoke leaves extract, turmeric extract, prickly pear dried leaves (PPL) and garlic extract versus each one alone in two different hyperlipidemic animal models. A two-week treatment of each of the natural extracts, combination 1 (artichoke, turmeric and PPL) or combination 2 (artichoke, turmeric, PPL and garlic) prior to a single intraperitoneal injection of Pluronic F-127 resulted in decreasing significantly serum LDL levels by garlic and PPL extracts and serum LDL/HDL ratios by turmeric, PPL, combination 1 and 2. In a 10-day high fat diet model, only the combination 1 and 2 lowered serum cholesterol, LDL by 8-12%, decreased significantly triglycerides, LDL/HDL ratio; and increased significantly HDL (P < 0.0001). However, a long term treatment of each natural product for 7 weeks resulted in decreasing significantly serum LDL levels and LDL/HDL ratio (P < 0.05-0.0001). Furthermore, only artichoke and PPL inhibited significantly HMG-CoA reductase activity (P < 0.05). In conclusion, short term, as well as long term, treatment using the combination of artichoke, turmeric, PPL and garlic extract prevents dyslipidemia; partially through inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase.

Chitosan-sodium lauryl sulfate nanoparticles as a carrier system for the in vivo delivery of oral insulin.

The present work explores the possibility of formulating an oral insulin delivery system using nanoparticulate complexes made from the interaction between biodegradable, natural polymer called chitosan and anionic surfactant called sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS). The interaction between chitosan and SLS was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The nanoparticles were prepared by simple gelation method under aqueous-based conditions. The nanoparticles were stable in simulated gastric fluids and could protect the encapsulated insulin from the GIT enzymes. Additionally, the in vivo results clearly indicated that the insulin-loaded nanoparticles could effectively reduce the blood glucose level in a diabetic rat model. However, additional formulation modifications are required to improve insulin oral bioavailability.

Effect of cyclodextrins on the solubility and stability of candesartan cilexetil in solution and solid state.

Guest-host interactions of candesartan cilexetil (CAND) with cyclodextrins (CyDs) have been investigated using phase solubility diagrams (PSD), X-ray powder diffractometry (XRPD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and molecular mechanical modelling (MM). Estimates of the complex formation constant (K(11)) show that the tendency of CAND (pK(a)=6.0) to complex with CyDs follows the order: ß-CyD>HP-ß-CyD>γ-CyD>α-CyD. Complex formation of CAND with ß-CyD (ΔG°=-31.5 kJ/mol) is largely driven by enthalpy change (ΔH°=-32.8 kJ/mol) and slightly retarded by entropy change (ΔS°=-4.6J/mol K). The HPLC results indicate that complex prepared by freeze drying method is chemically not stable due to the formation of amorphous CAND. Also it may suggest formulating CAND with ß-CyD by kneading (dispersion) or co-evaporation (real inclusion complex) methods into capsule rather than compressed in tablets, where the compression enhances the instability of CAND. DSC thermograms for CAND/ß-CyD complexes proved the formation of inclusion complexes with new solid phase. MM studies indicate the partial penetration of CAND into the ß-CyD cavity.