Preferred Sources of Information, Knowledge, and Acceptance of Automated Vehicle Systems: Effects of Gender and Age.

Automobile crashes are a leading cause of death in the United States and worldwide. Driver automation systems and active safety systems have the potential to improve the safety and mobility of all road users and may particularly benefit older adults who have been slow to accept and adopt such systems. Age-related sensory-cognitive changes contribute to higher crash rates and increased physical frailty makes severe injury or death more likely when a crash occurs. Vehicle automation can decrease the sensory-cognitive load of the driving task and many advanced automated safety features can decrease crash severity. Acceptance and adoption of driver automation systems is necessary for their benefit to be realized yet little is known about drivers' preferred sources of information and knowledge about such systems. In a sample of 404 active drivers, we examined the impact of age and gender on understanding and acceptance of vehicle automation, acceptance of new technologies more generally, and preferred sources of information to learn about vehicle automation. Results revealed that older respondents and females felt less technically sophisticated than their younger and male counterparts. Males subjectively reported greater understanding of vehicle automation. However, assessment of objective knowledge of automation operation showed males had no greater knowledge than females. Males also reported a greater willingness to accept higher levels of vehicle automation than females across all age groups. When asked how they would prefer to learn about new vehicle automation, older adults reported wanting information from more objective sources than their younger counterparts and were significantly less likely to rely on friends and family, or social media. The present results provide support for the idea that people are not willing to accept technology that they do not feel they understand well and conversely, if people feel that they understand vehicle automation they will be more likely to adopt it. The results provide insights into assisting drivers to gain more accurate knowledge and hence acceptance of vehicle automation systems.

The Origins of Passive, Active, and Sleep-Related Fatigue.

Driving is a safety-critical task that requires an alert and vigilant driver. Most research on the topic of vigilance has focused on its proximate causes, namely low arousal and resource expenditure. The present article aims to build upon previous work by discussing the ultimate causes, or the processes that tend to precede low arousal and resource expenditure. The authors review different aspects of fatigue that contribute to a loss of vigilance and how they tend to occur; specifically, the neurochemistry of passive fatigue, the electrophysiology of active fatigue, and the chronobiology of sleep-related fatigue.

Effect of age and secondary task engagement on motor vehicle crashes in a naturalistic setting.

PROBLEM: Automobile crashes are one of the leading causes of death in the United States, especially for younger and older drivers. Additionally, distracted driving is another leading factor in the likelihood of crashes. However, there is little understanding about the interaction between age and secondary task engagement and how that impacts crash likelihood and maneuver safety. METHOD: Data from the Naturalistic Driving Study (NDS), which was part of the Second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP2), were used to investigate this issue. RESULTS: It was found that the distribution of crashes per one million km driven during the NDS was similar to previous research, but with fewer crashes from older drivers. Additionally, it was found that older and middle-aged drivers engaged in distracted driving more frequently than was expected, and that crashes were significantly more likely if drivers of those age groups were engaged in secondary tasks. However, secondary task engagement did not predict judgment of safe/unsafe vehicle maneuvers. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: More research is needed to better understand the interaction of age and distraction on crash likelihood. However, this research could aid future researchers in understanding the likelihood of future use of new in-vehicle technologies for different age groups, as well as provide insight to the engagement patterns of distraction for different age groups.

Comparing the Relative Strengths of EEG and Low-Cost Physiological Devices in Modeling Attention Allocation in Semiautonomous Vehicles.

As semiautonomous driving systems are becoming prevalent in late model vehicles, it is important to understand how such systems affect driver attention. This study investigated whether measures from low-cost devices monitoring peripheral physiological state were comparable to standard EEG in predicting lapses in attention to system failures. Twenty-five participants were equipped with a low-fidelity eye-tracker and heart rate monitor and with a high-fidelity NuAmps 32-channel quick-gel EEG system and asked to detect the presence of potential system failure while engaged in a fully autonomous lane changing driving task. To encourage participant attention to the road and to assess engagement in the lane changing task, participants were required to: (a) answer questions about that task; and (b) keep a running count of the type and number of billboards presented throughout the driving task. Linear mixed effects analyses were conducted to model the latency of responses reaction time (RT) to automation signals using the physiological metrics and time period. Alpha-band activity at the midline parietal region in conjunction with heart rate variability (HRV) was important in modeling RT over time. Results suggest that current low-fidelity technologies are not sensitive enough by themselves to reliably model RT to critical signals. However, that HRV interacted with EEG to significantly model RT points to the importance of further developing heart rate metrics for use in environments where it is not practical to use EEG.

Validation of Essential Acoustic Parameters for Highly Urgent In-Vehicle Collision Warnings.

Objective The aim of this study was to validate the importance of key acoustic criteria for use as in-vehicle forward collision warning (FCW) systems. Background Despite recent advances in vehicle safety, automobile crashes remain one of the leading causes of death. As automation allows for more control of noncritical functions by the vehicle, the potential for disengagement and distraction from the driving task also increases. It is, therefore, as important as ever that in-vehicle safety-critical interfaces are intuitive and unambiguous, promoting effective collision avoidance responses upon first exposure even under divided-attention conditions. Method The current study used a driving simulator to assess the effectiveness of two warnings, one that met all essential acoustic parameters, one that met only some essential parameters, and a no-warning control in the context of a lead vehicle-following task in conjunction with a cognitive distractor task and collision event. Results Participants receiving an FCW comprising five essential acoustic components had improved collision avoidance responses relative to a no-warning condition and an FCW missing essential elements on their first exposure. Responses to a consistently good warning (GMU Prime) improved with subsequent exposures, whereas continued exposure to the less optimal FCW (GMU Sub-Prime) resulted in poorer performance even relative to receiving no warning at all. Conclusions This study provides support for previous warning design studies and for the validity of five key acoustic parameters essential for the design of effective in-vehicle FCWs. Application Results from this study have implications for the design of auditory FCWs and in-vehicle display design.

Positive valence music restores executive control over sustained attention.

Music sometimes improves performance in sustained attention tasks. But the type of music employed in previous investigations has varied considerably, which can account for equivocal results. Progress has been hampered by lack of a systematic database of music varying in key characteristics like tempo and valence. The aims of this study were to establish a database of popular music varying along the dimensions of tempo and valence and to examine the impact of music varying along these dimensions on restoring attentional resources following performance of a sustained attention to response task (SART) vigil. Sixty-nine participants rated popular musical selections that varied in valence and tempo to establish a database of four musical types: fast tempo positive valence, fast tempo negative valence, slow tempo positive valence, and slow tempo negative valence. A second group of 89 participants performed two blocks of the SART task interspersed with either no break or a rest break consisting of 1 of the 4 types of music or silence. Presenting positive valence music (particularly of slow tempo) during an intermission between two successive blocks of the SART significantly decreased miss rates relative to negative valence music or silence. Results support an attentional restoration theory of the impact of music on sustained attention, rather than arousal theory and demonstrate a means of restoring sustained attention. Further, the results establish the validity of a music database that will facilitate further investigations of the impact of music on performance.

Detecting and Quantifying Mind Wandering during Simulated Driving.

Mind wandering is a pervasive threat to transportation safety, potentially accounting for a substantial number of crashes and fatalities. In the current study, mind wandering was induced through completion of the same task for 5 days, consisting of a 20-min monotonous freeway-driving scenario, a cognitive depletion task, and a repetition of the 20-min driving scenario driven in the reverse direction. Participants were periodically probed with auditory tones to self-report whether they were mind wandering or focused on the driving task. Self-reported mind wandering frequency was high, and did not statistically change over days of participation. For measures of driving performance, participant labeled periods of mind wandering were associated with reduced speed and reduced lane variability, in comparison to periods of on task performance. For measures of electrophysiology, periods of mind wandering were associated with increased power in the alpha band of the electroencephalogram (EEG), as well as a reduction in the magnitude of the P3a component of the event related potential (ERP) in response to the auditory probe. Results support that mind wandering has an impact on driving performance and the associated change in driver's attentional state is detectable in underlying brain physiology. Further, results suggest that detecting the internal cognitive state of humans is possible in a continuous task such as automobile driving. Identifying periods of likely mind wandering could serve as a useful research tool for assessment of driver attention, and could potentially lead to future in-vehicle safety countermeasures.

Between Two Worlds.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an evaluative overview of the life and contributions of Raja Parasuraman. BACKGROUND: From his earliest contributions in clarifying and explaining the problematic area of vigilance to his most recent interdisciplinary advances in understanding how genotype relates to behavior in complex technical environments, Raja Parasuraman was a giant of human factors and ergonomics. Our present exposition articulates and recounts his many contributions to our science and to science in general beyond the confines of our own discipline. METHOD: We use the history of scientific contributions, biographical analysis, and reported personal experience to accomplish our overall assessment of the man and his work. RESULTS: We conclude that Parasuraman's contributions were unique, substantive, and seminal, and will continue to influence our science for many years to come. APPLICATION: This work will serve as a record for those to come who look to make significant contributions to the goals, aims, and aspirations that we set ourselves in human factors and ergonomics in seeking to improve the human condition.

Validation of the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES) in an English-Speaking Sample.

OBJECTIVE: The goal for this study was to develop an English translation of the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES-US) and to determine its potential relationship with driver history and other demographic variables. BACKGROUND: Individual differences in performance on vigilance and cognitive tasks are well documented, but less is known about susceptibility to attention-related errors while driving. The ARDES has been developed and administered in both Spanish and Chinese but to our knowledge has never been administered or examined in an English-speaking population. METHOD: Two hundred ninety-six English-speaking individuals completed a series of self-report measures, including the ARDES-US, Attention-Related Cognitive Errors Scale, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, and Cognitive Failures Questionnaire. RESULTS: A confirmatory factor analysis using maximum-likelihood estimates with robust standard errors revealed results largely consistent with previous versions of the ARDES, namely, the ARDES-Spain and ARDES-Argentina. Additionally, a number of new results emerged. Specifically, women, drivers who received traffic tickets within the previous 2 years, and those with a lower level of education all had a greater propensity toward self-reported driver inattention as measured by the ARDES-US. Further analyses revealed that these findings were independent of age, years of driving experience, and driving frequency. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the ARDES-US is a valid and reliable measure of driver inattention with an English-speaking American sample. APPLICATION: Potential applications of the ARDES-US include identifying individuals who are at greater risk of attention-related errors while driving and suggesting individually tailored training and safety countermeasures.

The Independence and Interdependence of Coacting Observers in Regard to Performance Efficiency, Workload, and Stress in a Vigilance Task.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated performance, workload, and stress in groups of paired observers who performed a vigilance task in a coactive (independent) manner. BACKGROUND: Previous studies have demonstrated that groups of coactive observers detect more signals in a vigilance task than observers working alone. Therefore, the use of such groups might be effective in enhancing signal detection in operational situations. However, concern over appearing less competent than one's cohort might induce elevated levels of workload and stress in coactive group members and thereby undermine group performance benefits. Accordingly, we performed the initial experiment comparing workload and stress in observers who performed a vigilance task coactively with those of observers who performed the vigilance task alone. METHOD: Observers monitored a video display for collision flight paths in a simulated unmanned aerial vehicle control task. Self-reports of workload and stress were secured via the NASA-Task Load Index and the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire, respectively. RESULTS: Groups of coactive observers detected significantly more signals than did single observers. Coacting observers did not differ significantly from those operating by themselves in terms of workload but did in regard to stress; posttask distress was significantly lower for coacting than for single observers. CONCLUSION: Performing a visual vigilance task in a coactive manner with another observer does not elevate workload above that of observers working alone and serves to attenuate the stress associated with vigilance task performance. APPLICATION: The use of coacting observers could be an effective vehicle for enhancing performance efficiency in operational vigilance.

Individual differences in verbal-spatial conflict in rapid spatial-orientation tasks.

OBJECTIVE: The impact of interference from irrelevant spatial versus verbal cues is investigated in an auditory spatial Stroop task, and individual differences in navigation strategy are examined as a moderating factor. BACKGROUND: Verbal-spatial cue conflict in the auditory modality has not been extensively studied, and yet the potential for such conflict can be high in certain settings, such as modern aircraft and automobile cockpits, where multiple warning systems and verbally delivered instructions may compete for the operator's spatial attention. METHOD: Two studies are presented in which participants responded to either the semantic meaning or the spatial location of directional words, which were presented from congruent and incongruent locations. A subset was selected from the larger sample for additional analyses based on their navigation strategy. RESULTS: Results demonstrated greater interference when participants were responding to the spatial location and thus attempting to ignore conflicting semantic information. Participants with a verbal navigation strategy paralleled this finding. Conversely, highly spatial navigators responded faster to spatially relevant information but did not show corresponding interference when trying to ignore spatial information. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that people have fundamentally different approaches to the use of auditory spatial information that manifest at the early level of orienting toward a single word or sound. APPLICATION: When designing spatial information displays and warning systems, particularly those with an auditory component, designers should ensure that either verbal-directional or nonverbal-spatial information is utilized by all alerts to reduce interference.

Perceived urgency mapping across modalities within a driving context.

Hazard mapping is essential to effective driver-vehicle interface (DVI) design. Determining which modality to use for situations of different criticality requires an understanding of the relative impact of signal parameters within each modality on perceptions of urgency and annoyance. Towards this goal we obtained psychometric functions for visual, auditory and tactile interpulse interval (IPI), visual color, signal word, and auditory fundamental frequency on perceptions of urgency, annoyance, and acceptability. Results indicate that manipulation of IPI in the tactile modality, relative to visual and auditory, has greater utility (greater impact on urgency than annoyance). Manipulations of color were generally rated as less annoying and more acceptable than auditory and tactile stimuli; but they were also rated as lower in urgency relative to other modality manipulations. Manipulation of auditory fundamental frequency resulted in high ratings of both urgency and annoyance. Results of the current investigation can be used to guide DVI design and evaluation.

An electrophysiological correlate of conflict processing in an auditory spatial Stroop task: the effect of individual differences in navigational style.

Recent work has identified an event-related potential (ERP) component, the incongruency negativity (N(inc)), which is sensitive to auditory Stroop conflict processing. Here, we investigated how this index of conflict processing is influenced by individual differences in cognitive style. There is evidence that individuals differ in the strategy they use to navigate through the environment; some use a predominantly verbal-egocentric strategy while others rely more heavily on a spatial-allocentric strategy. In addition, navigational strategy, assessed by a way-finding questionnaire, is predictive of performance on an auditory spatial Stroop task, in which either the semantic or spatial dimension of stimuli must be ignored. To explore the influence of individual differences in navigational style on conflict processing, participants took part in an auditory spatial Stroop task while the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. Whereas behavioral performance only showed a main effect of congruency, we observed the predicted three-way interaction between congruency, task type and navigational style with respect to our physiological measure of Stroop conflict. Specifically, congruency-dependent modulation of the N(inc) was observed only when participants performed their non-dominant task (e.g., verbal navigators attempting to ignore semantic information). These results confirm that the N(inc) reliably indexes auditory Stroop conflict and extend previous results by demonstrating that the N(inc) is predictably modulated by individual differences in cognitive style.

Symposium: Neuroergonomics, technology, and cognition.

This symposium describes collaborative research on neuroergonomics, technology, and cognition being conducted at George Mason University and the US Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) as part of the Center of Excellence in Neuroergonomics, Technology, and Cognition (CENTEC). Six presentations describe the latest developments in neuroergonomics research conducted by CENTEC scientists. The individual papers cover studies of: (1) adaptive learning systems; (2) neurobehavioral synchronicity during team performance; (3) genetics and individual differences in decision making; (4) vigilance and mindlessness; (5) interruptions and multi-tasking; and (6) development of a simulation capability that integrates measures across these domains and levels of analysis.

Multimodal urgency coding: auditory, visual, and tactile parameters and their impact on perceived urgency.

Through a series of investigations involving different levels of contextual fidelity we developed scales of perceived urgency for several dimensions of the auditory, visual, and tactile modalities. Psychophysical ratings of perceived urgency, annoyance, and acceptability as well as behavioral responses to signals in each modality were obtained and analyzed using Steven's Power Law to allow comparison across modalities. Obtained results and their implications for use as in-vehicle alerts and warnings are discussed.

Adaptive training using an artificial neural network and EEG metrics for within- and cross-task workload classification.

Adaptive training using neurophysiological measures requires efficient classification of mental workload in real time as a learner encounters new and increasingly difficult levels of tasks. Previous investigations have shown that artificial neural networks (ANNs) can accurately classify workload, but only when trained on neurophysiological exemplars from experienced operators on specific tasks. The present study examined classification accuracies for ANNs trained on electroencephalographic (EEG) activity recorded while participants performed the same (within task) and different (cross) tasks for short periods of time with little or no prior exposure to the tasks. Participants performed three working memory tasks at two difficulty levels with order of task and difficulty level counterbalanced. Within-task classification accuracies were high when ANNs were trained on exemplars from the same task or a set containing the to-be-classified task, (M=87.1% and 85.3%, respectively). Cross-task classification accuracies were significantly lower (average 44.8%) indicating consistent systematic misclassification for certain tasks in some individuals. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for developing neurophysiologically driven adaptive training platforms.

Verbal collision avoidance messages during simulated driving: perceived urgency, alerting effectiveness and annoyance.

Matching the perceived urgency of an alert with the relative hazard level of the situation is critical for effective alarm response. Two experiments describe the impact of acoustic and semantic parameters on ratings of perceived urgency, annoyance and alerting effectiveness and on alarm response speed. Within a simulated driving context, participants rated and responded to collision avoidance system (CAS) messages spoken by a female or male voice (experiments 1 and 2, respectively). Results indicated greater perceived urgency and faster alarm response times as intensity increased from -2 dB signal to noise (S/N) ratio to +10 dB S/N, although annoyance ratings increased as well. CAS semantic content interacted with alarm intensity, indicating that at lower intensity levels participants paid more attention to the semantic content. Results indicate that both acoustic and semantic parameters independently and interactively impact CAS alert perceptions in divided attention conditions and this work can inform auditory alarm design for effective hazard matching. Matching the perceived urgency of an alert with the relative hazard level of the situation is critical for effective alarm response. Here, both acoustic and semantic parameters independently and interactively impacted CAS alert perceptions in divided attention conditions. This work can inform auditory alarm design for effective hazard matching. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: Results indicate that both acoustic parameters and semantic content can be used to design collision warnings with a range of urgency levels. Further, these results indicate that verbal warnings tailored to a specific hazard situation may improve hazard-matching capabilities without substantial trade-offs in perceived annoyance.