Molecular assessment of mating strategies in a population of Atlantic spotted dolphins.

Similar to other small cetacean species, Atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis) have been the object of concentrated behavioral study. Although mating and courtship behaviors occur often and the social structure of the population is well-studied, the genetic mating system of the species is unknown. To assess the genetic mating system, we genotyped females and their progeny at ten microsatellite loci. Genotype analysis provided estimates of the minimum number of male sires necessary to account for the allelic diversity observed among the progeny. Using the estimates of male sires, we determined whether females mated with the same or different males during independent estrus events. Using Gerud2.0, a minimum of two males was necessary to account for the genetic variation seen among progeny arrays of all tested females. ML-Relate assigned the most likely relationship between offspring pairs; half or full sibling. Relationship analysis supported the conservative male estimates of Gerud2.0 but in some cases, half or full sibling relationships between offspring could not be fully resolved. Integrating the results from Gerud2.0, ML-Relate with previous observational and paternity data, we constructed two-, three-, and four-male pedigree models for each genotyped female. Because increased genetic diversity of offspring may explain multi-male mating, we assessed the internal genetic relatedness of each offspring's genotype to determine whether parent pairs of offspring were closely related. We found varying levels of internal relatedness ranging from unrelated to closely related (range -0.136-0.321). Because there are several hypothesized explanations for multi-male mating, we assessed our data to determine the most plausible explanation for multi-male mating in our study system. Our study indicated females may benefit from mating with multiple males by passing genes for long-term viability to their young.

Factors Controlling Sperm Entry into the Micropyles of Salmonid and Herring Eggs: (fish/sperm/egg/micropyle/fertilization).

When the micropyle area of salmonid (trout and salmon) eggs was observed continuously from the moment of insemination, spermatozoa were seen moving along the surface of the chorion and entering the micropyle one by one in a directed fashion. The ability of spermatozoa to enter the micropyle was reduced after the treatment of chorions with pronase; this reduction in sperm entry was observed even before the outer opening of the micropyle channel was narrowed due to gradual swelling of the chorion by pronase treatment. Herring spermatozoa, unlike spermatozoa of most other marine fishes, were motionless in seawater. However, they became vigorously motile on contact with the micropyle area of the herring egg chorion and entered the micropyle rapidly and efficiently. Motility initiation of herring spermatozoa in the micropyle area was dependent on extracellular calcium and potassium. Sodium also appears to be intricately involved in this process as demonstrated by the initiation of sperm movement in sodium-free seawater. When herring eggs were treated with acidic seawater, organic solvents, or glutaraldehyde, spermatozoa did not initiate movement in the micropyle area, and sperm entry was not observed. Herring spermatozoa did not initiate movement in the micropyle area of salmonid eggs. These and other observations suggest that the micropyle areas of salmonid and herring eggs possess some sperm guidance factors which facilitate entry of homologous spermatozoa into the micropyle.