Free Recall of Bound Information Held in Short-Term Memory is Unimpaired by Age and Education.

OBJECTIVES: It has been challenging to identify cognitive markers to differentiate healthy brain aging from neurodegeneration due to Alzheimer's disease (AD) that are not affected by age and education. The Short-Term Memory Binding (STMB) showed not to be affected by age or education when using the change detection paradigm. However, no previous study has tested the effect of age and education using the free recall paradigm of the STMB. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate age and education effects on the free recall version of the STMB test under different memory loads. METHODS: 126 healthy volunteers completed the free recall STMB test. The sample was divided into five age bands and into five education bands for comparisons. The STMB test assessed free recall of two (or three) common objects and two (or three) primary colors presented as individual features (unbound) or integrated into unified objects (bound). RESULTS: The binding condition and the larger set size generated lower free recall scores. Performance was lower in older and less educated participants. Critically, neither age nor education modified these effects when compared across experimental conditions (unbound v. bound features). CONCLUSIONS: Binding in short-term memory carries a cost in performance. Age and education do not affect such a binding cost within a memory recall paradigm. These findings suggest that this paradigm is a suitable cognitive marker to differentiate healthy brain aging from age-related disease such as AD.

Lexical-retrieval and semantic memory in Parkinson's disease: The question of noun and verb dissociation.

The dissociation between the processing of verbs and nouns has been debated in light of the Embodied Cognition Theory (EC). The objective of this paper is to verify how action and verb processing deficits of PD patients are modulated by different tasks with different cognitive demands. Action and object lexical-semantic processing was evaluated in patients with Parkinson's Disease (PD) and cognitively healthy controls through three different tasks (verbal fluency, naming and semantic association). Compared to controls, PD patients presented worse performance in naming actions and in the two semantic association tasks (action/object). Action verbal fluency performance was significantly associated with PD severity whereas object semantic association deficits and noun verbal fluency scores were associated to lower scores in measures of global cognitive functioning. Our data suggest that semantic deficits are related to the type of cognitive processing and this is in the line with more flexible EC accounts.

Evolution of language assessment in patients with acquired neurological disorders in Brazil / Evolução no Brasil das avaliações de linguagem nos pacientes com distúrbios neurológicos adquiridos

The objective of this paper was to describe the evolution of language assessments in patients with acquired neurological diseases over a period of around 45 years from 1970, when interdisciplinarity in Neuropsychology first began in Brazil, to the present day. The first twenty years of data was based on memories of Speech Pathology University Professors who were in charge of teaching aphasia. We then show the contributions of Linguistics, Cognitive Psychology, as well as Psycholinguistic and Psychometric criteria, to language evaluation. Finally, the current panorama of adaptations and creations of validated and standardized instruments is given, based on a search of the databases Pubmed, Scopus and Lilacs. Our closing remarks highlight the diversity in evaluation approaches and the recent tendency of language evaluations linked to new technologies such as brain imaging and computational analysis.

O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução das avaliações de linguagem em pacientes com distúrbios neurológicos adquiridos durante um período de aproximadamente 45 anos, dos anos 1970 até os dias atuais, quando a interdisciplinaridade iniciou-se no Brasil na Neuropsicologia. Os relatos dos primeiros 20 anos foram baseados em memórias de professores de universidades que possuíam o curso de Fonoaudiologia e ministravam disciplinas de afasia. Após, procuramos mostrar as contribuições da Linguística, da Psicologia Cognitiva para a avaliação da linguagem, assim como dos critérios psicolinguísticos e psicométricos. Por fim, apresentamos o panorama atual das adaptações e criações de instrumentos validados e estandardizados a partir de busca nas bases Pubmed, Scopus e Lilacs. Nossos comentários finais salientam a diversidade dos métodos de avaliação e a tendência recente da avaliação da linguagem estar relacionada às novas tecnologias de imagem cerebral e a análises computacionais.

Semantic memory for actions as assessed by the Kissing and Dancing Test: education and age effects in cognitively healthy individuals / Memória semântica para ações avaliada pelo teste beijando e dançando: efeitos de educação e idade em sujeitos cognitivamente sadios

Action semantics is a relevant part of cognitive-linguistic assessment and the ?Kissing and Dancing Test? (KDT) has been used extensively for this purpose, evidencing clinical distinctions among brain-damaged patients. To enhance its use, reference values are necessary, especially for populations with heterogeneous educational levels and socioeconomic backgrounds. Objective: To analyze the effects of schooling and age on the KDT in cognitively unimpaired individuals. Methods: The KDT was applied to seventy-four healthy subjects. Sociodemographic factors were investigated through correlational and between-group analyses. Reference values according to age and schooling were provided. Results: KDT performance correlated significantly with schooling (r=0.757, p<0.01), age (r=?0.496, p<0.01) and socioeconomic status (r=0.418 p<0.01) but these variables were intercorrelated. Correlation with schooling and age remained significant when controlling for age and socioeconomic status (r=0.530, p<0.01), and for schooling (?0.305,<0.01), respectively. When controlling for schooling, correlation between socioeconomic status and KDT was not significant (p=0.164). Between-group analyses revealed no age effects. Significant differences were found in performance according to educational level. Scores below 39/52 and below 47/52 (percentile 25) for individuals with 8 or less years of schooling and for individuals with 9 or more years of schooling, respectively, seem suggestive of an impairment in Action Semantics Processing and shall be further investigated. Conclusion: KDT performance was influenced both by age and schooling, indicating the need to consider these demographic features as covariates when analyzing performance on the test and to adjust cut-off scores according to these demographic characteristics in clinical practice.

Processamento semântico verbal é uma parte relevante da avaliação linguístico-cognitiva e o KDT tem sido amplamente utilizado para tal finalidade, evidenciando diferenças clínicas entre pacientes com danos cerebrais. Para aumentar sua utilização, valores de referência são necessários, especialmente para populações com origens socioeconômicas e níveis de escolaridade heterogêneos. Objetivo: Analisar efeitos da escolaridade e idade no KDT em indivíduos cognitivamente intactos. Métodos: O KDT foi aplicado em 74 indivíduos saudáveis. Fatores sociodemográficos foram investigados por correlação e análises entre grupos. Valores de referência foram fornecidos por idade e escolaridade. Resultados: O desempenho do KDT correlaciona-se significativamente à escolaridade (r=0.757, p<0.01), à idade (r=?0.496, p<0.01) e ao nível socioeconômico (r=0.418, p<0.01 ), variáveis que se mostraram intercorrelacionadas. Correlações com a escolaridade e idade permaneceram significativas quando controladas a idade e nível socioeconômico (r=0.530, p<0.01) e a escolaridade (r=- 0.305,<0.01), respectivamente. Com controle do parâmetro da escolaridade, não houve correlação significativa entre o nível socioeconômico e o KDT (p=0.164). As análises entre grupos não revelaram os efeitos da idade. Encontraram-se diferenças significativas no desempenho de acordo com escolaridade. Escores abaixo do percentil 25 (39/52 - indivíduos com até 8 anos de escolaridade e 47/52- indivíduos com 9 ou mais anos de escolaridade) são sugestivos de dificuldades no processamento semântico de ações, que devem ser melhor investigadas. Conclusão: O desempenho do KDT foi influenciado por idade e escolaridade, o que reflete a necessidade de se considerar estes fatores como covariantes e, na prática clínica, usar diferentes pontos de corte, considerando essas características demográficas.

Semantic memory for actions as assessed by the Kissing and Dancing Test: Education and age effects in cognitively healthy individuals.

Action semantics is a relevant part of cognitive-linguistic assessment and the "Kissing and Dancing Test" (KDT) has been used extensively for this purpose, evidencing clinical distinctions among brain-damaged patients. To enhance its use, reference values are necessary, especially for populations with heterogeneous educational levels and socioeconomic backgrounds. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the effects of schooling and age on the KDT in cognitively unimpaired individuals. METHODS: The KDT was applied to seventy-four healthy subjects. Sociodemographic factors were investigated through correlational and between-group analyses. Reference values according to age and schooling were provided. RESULTS: KDT performance correlated significantly with schooling (r=0.757, p<0.01), age (r=-0.496, p<0.01) and socioeconomic status (r=0.418 p<0.01) but these variables were intercorrelated. Correlation with schooling and age remained significant when controlling for age and socioeconomic status (r=0.530, p<0.01), and for schooling (-0.305,<0.01), respectively. When controlling for schooling, correlation between socioeconomic status and KDT was not significant (p=0.164). Between-group analyses revealed no age effects. Significant differences were found in performance according to educational level. Scores below 39/52 and below 47/52 (percentile 25) for individuals with 8 or less years of schooling and for individuals with 9 or more years of schooling, respectively, seem suggestive of an impairment in Action Semantics Processing and shall be further investigated. CONCLUSION: KDT performance was influenced both by age and schooling, indicating the need to consider these demographic features as covariates when analyzing performance on the test and to adjust cut-off scores according to these demographic characteristics in clinical practice.

Processamento semântico verbal é uma parte relevante da avaliação linguístico-cognitiva e o KDT tem sido amplamente utilizado para tal finalidade, evidenciando diferenças clínicas entre pacientes com danos cerebrais. Para aumentar sua utilização, valores de referência são necessários, especialmente para populações com origens socioeconômicas e níveis de escolaridade heterogêneos. OBJETIVO: Analisar efeitos da escolaridade e idade no KDT em indivíduos cognitivamente intactos. MÉTODOS: O KDT foi aplicado em 74 indivíduos saudáveis. Fatores sociodemográficos foram investigados por correlação e análises entre grupos. Valores de referência foram fornecidos por idade e escolaridade. RESULTADOS: O desempenho do KDT correlaciona-se significativamente à escolaridade (r=0.757, p<0.01), à idade (r=­0.496, p<0.01) e ao nível socioeconômico (r=0.418, p<0.01), variáveis que se mostraram intercorrelacionadas. Correlações com a escolaridade e idade permaneceram significativas quando controladas a idade e nível socioeconômico (r=0.530, p<0.01) e a escolaridade (r=- 0.305,<0.01), respectivamente. Com controle do parâmetro da escolaridade, não houve correlação significativa entre o nível socioeconômico e o KDT (p=0.164). As análises entre grupos não revelaram os efeitos da idade. Encontraram-se diferenças significativas no desempenho de acordo com escolaridade. Escores abaixo do percentil 25 (39/52 -indivíduos com até 8 anos de escolaridade e 47/52- indivíduos com 9 ou mais anos de escolaridade) são sugestivos de dificuldades no processamento semântico de ações, que devem ser melhor investigadas. CONCLUSÃO: O desempenho do KDT foi influenciado por idade e escolaridade, o que reflete a necessidade de se considerar estes fatores como covariantes e, na prática clínica, usar diferentes pontos de corte, considerando essas características demográficas.

Evolution of language assessment in patients with acquired neurological disorders in Brazil.

The objective of this paper was to describe the evolution of language assessments in patients with acquired neurological diseases over a period of around 45 years from 1970, when interdisciplinarity in Neuropsychology first began in Brazil, to the present day. The first twenty years of data was based on memories of Speech Pathology University Professors who were in charge of teaching aphasia. We then show the contributions of Linguistics, Cognitive Psychology, as well as Psycholinguistic and Psychometric criteria, to language evaluation. Finally, the current panorama of adaptations and creations of validated and standardized instruments is given, based on a search of the databases Pubmed, Scopus and Lilacs. Our closing remarks highlight the diversity in evaluation approaches and the recent tendency of language evaluations linked to new technologies such as brain imaging and computational analysis.

O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução das avaliações de linguagem em pacientes com distúrbios neurológicos adquiridos durante um período de aproximadamente 45 anos, dos anos 1970 até os dias atuais, quando a interdisciplinaridade iniciou-se no Brasil na Neuropsicologia. Os relatos dos primeiros 20 anos foram baseados em memórias de professores de universidades que possuiam o curso de Fonoaudiologia e ministravam disciplinas de afasia. Após, procuramos mostrar as contribuições da Linguística, da Psicologia Cognitiva para a avaliação da linguagem, assim como dos critérios psicolinguísticos e psicométricos. Por fim, apresentamos o panorama atual das adaptações e criações de instrumentos validados e estandardizados a partir de busca nas bases Pubmed, Scopus e Lilacs. Nossos comentários finais salientam a diversidade dos métodos de avaliação e a tendência recente da avaliação da linguagem estar relacionada às novas tecnologias de imagem cerebral e a análises computacionais.