Trends and patterns of caffeine consumption among US teenagers and young adults, NHANES 2003-2012.

Caffeine consumption among US teenagers (13-17y), young adults (18-24y) and adults (25-29y) for a 10 year period was examined using NHANES 2003-12. Of the 85% who consume caffeine 84% consume caffeinated beverages. This percentage remained constant despite new caffeine sources. Less than 7.1% of the population consume energy drinks. While mean caffeine intake among teenage caffeine consumers decreased from 62 to 55 mg/day (p-value = 0.018) over the 10-year period, no discernable trend was observed for other age groups. Caffeine intake from energy drinks increased, and was only statistically significant for age 18-24y accounting for <9% of total caffeine intake. Mean caffeine intake per consumption occasion was equivalent between coffee and energy drinks for teenagers and young adults. During a 30-min period mean caffeine consumption was similar when an energy drink was the only consumption event or when it occurred with other caffeinated beverage products suggestive of a substitution effect. Linear regression models of caffeine intake from energy drinks against caffeine from coffee, tea and soda among energy drink consumers in the upper 50th percentile shows a statistically significant inverse relationship (R2 = 28%, coffee: ß = -0.35, p < 0.001; tea: ß = -0.44, p < 0.001; soda: ß = -0.22, p = 0.036) and further supports the substitution concept.

Dietary acrylamide exposure and hemoglobin adducts--National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2003-04).

The objective of this study is to evaluate the relationship between dietary AA and hemoglobin adducts using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES, 2003-04). Measured acrylamide (AA-Hb) and glycidamide (Gly-Hb) hemoglobin adducts for over 7000 participants >3 years, 24-h dietary recall, food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), lifestyle and demographic data, and anthropometric measurements are available from NHANES (2003-04). The 24-h dietary recall and FFQ data were combined with AA concentration data in food from the US FDA to estimate "usual" AA dietary exposure. The associations between dietary AA and AA-Hb and Gly-Hb were evaluated using linear regression models with smoking, age, gender, energy and macronutrient intake, body surface area, and activity level as covariates. Dietary AA positively correlates with AA-Hb and Gly-Hb (p<0.05) but the correlation is small (R-Squared<3.5%). Relative to the background adduct levels, the incremental increase in AA-Hb and Gly-Hb from average dietary AA is small (7% and 9% for AA-Hb and Gly-Hb, respectively). Non-dietary sources of exposure, measurement errors associated with the use of the FFQ, and uncertainty in the data on AA levels in foods are possible explanations for the observed lack of association between dietary AA and AA-Hb and Gly-Hb.

Exposure data for cosmetic products: facial cleanser, hair conditioner, and eye shadow.

Reliable exposure information for cosmetic and other personal care products and ingredients is needed in order to conduct safety assessments. Essential information includes both the amount of product applied, and the frequency of use. To obtain current data, a study to assess consumer use practices was undertaken. Three widely used types of cosmetic products - facial cleanser, hair conditioner, and eye shadow - were included in the study. Three hundred and sixty women, ages 18-69 years, who regularly use the products of interest, were recruited nationwide within the US. Subjects were provided with a new container of the brand of product they normally use and kept diaries and recorded detailed daily usage information over a two week period. Products were weighed at the start and completion of the study in order to determine the total amount of product used. Statistical analyses of the data were conducted to derive summary distributions of use patterns. The mean and median usage per application, respectively, for the three product types were: facial cleanser, 2.57 g and 2.11 g; hair conditioner, 13.13 g and 10.21 g; and eye shadow, 0.03 g and 0.009 g. The mean and median usage per day for the three product types was: facial cleanser, 4.06 g and 3.25 g; hair conditioner, 13.77 g and 10.62 g; and eye shadow, 0.04 g and 0.010 g. The mean number of applications per day for facial cleanser, hair conditioner, and eye shadow was 1.6, 1.1, and 1.2, respectively. This study provides an estimate of current exposure information for commonly used products which will be useful for risk assessment purposes.

Exposure data for cosmetic products: lipstick, body lotion, and face cream.

Accurate exposure information for cosmetic products and ingredients is needed in order to conduct safety assessments. Essential information includes both the amount of cosmetic product applied, and the frequency of use. To obtain current data, a study to assess consumer use practices was undertaken. The study included three widely used cosmetic product types: lipstick, body lotion, and face cream. Three hundred and sixty women, ages 19-65 years, who regularly use the products of interest, were recruited at ten different geographical locations within the US. The number of recruits was chosen to ensure a minimum of 300 completes per product type. Subjects were provided with prototype test products, and kept diaries and recorded detailed daily usage information over a two week period. Products were weighed at the start and completion of the study in order to determine the total amount of product used. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted to derive summary distribution of use patterns. The mean and median usage per application, respectively, for the three products was: face cream, 1.22 g and 0.84 g; lipstick, 10 mg and 5 mg; and body lotion, 4.42 g and 3.45 g. The mean and median usage per day for the three products was: face cream, 2.05 g and 1.53 g; lipstick, 24 mg and 13 mg; and body lotion, 8.70 g and 7.63 g. The mean number of applications per day for face cream and lipstick was 1.77 and 2.35, respectively. For body lotion, the mean number of applications per day was dependent on body area, and was 2.12, 1.52, 1.11, 0.95, 0.43, 0.26, and 0.40 for hands, arms, legs, feet, neck and throat, back, and other body areas, respectively. The effect of product preference on use practices was also investigated. This study provides current cosmetic exposure information for commonly used products which will be useful for risk assessment purposes.

Dietary exposures to mineral hydrocarbons from food-use applications in the United States.

Food-use applications of mineral hydrocarbons (MHC) derived from petroleum sources result in dietary exposure to these compounds by consumers. Food applications of MHC, including white mineral oils, paraffin waxes, microcrystalline waxes and petrolatum, include both direct-additive uses in which the MHC is intentionally applied to the food and indirect-additive uses in which the MHC become components of the food due to migration from food-contact surfaces. A key consideration in evaluating the safety of these uses of MHC is the level of exposure that results. We estimated exposures to MHC in the US from food applications based primarily on a food-consumption approach, in which MHC concentrations in foods were multiplied by the amount of these foods consumed. This was a conservative estimate, because it assumes that all foods that might contain MHC in fact do so at maximum possible concentrations. A "poundage approach", in which the amount of MHC used in food applications was divided by the US population to determine maximum potential per capita exposures, was used to validate the consumption-based estimates. Exposures to MHC from food-packaging applications were estimated using the FDA's food-factor approach, which takes into account the volume and kinds of food packaged with specific types of materials. A conservative estimate of mean exposure to all MHC types combined is 0.875 mg/kg BW/day. Half of this, 0.427 mg/kg BW/day, is white mineral oils used as pan-release lubricants in baking, for de-dusting of stored grain, in confectioneries, and in coatings for fruits and vegetables. Nearly all of the remainder, 0.404 mg/kg BW/day, is petrolatum, primarily from its use as trough grease in bakery applications. Exposure to paraffin and microcrystalline waxes combined is only 0.044 mg/kg BW/day.

Estimated intakes of trans fatty and other fatty acids in the US population.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate mean level of trans fatty acid intakes using a representative sample of the US population. DESIGN: The study used food intake data from the 1989-1991 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) and the trans fatty acid contents of specific foods calculated from a database compiled by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) to estimate the mean level and deciles of trans fatty acid intake of the representative US population. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Trans fatty acid intakes were estimated for each subject (N = 11,258) in the CSFII data who completed both a 24-hour recall and a 2-day food record. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Weights developed by USDA for the survey were used for all data analyses. The Technical Assessment Systems (TAS) International Diet Research System (TAS-DIET), software developed by TAS, was used to derive weighted estimates of the mean and percentiles of the intake distribution. PC CARP, software designed by Iowa State University, was used to estimate standard errors. RESULTS: Mean percentage of energy ingested as trans fatty acids was 2.6% and the mean percentage of total fat ingested as trans fatty acids was 7.4%. Across all age and gender groups examined, estimates ranged from 2.6% to 2.8% and 7.1% to 7.9%, respectively. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Dietetics practitioners can use the representative data of this study to help clients achieve desired changes in consumption levels of trans fatty acids.

Evaluation of the budget method for screening food additive intakes.

The Budget Method, originally developed for determining food additive use limits, has been proposed as a tool for screening food additive intakes to establish monitoring priorities. Theoretical Maximum Daily Intake (TMDI) estimates derived using the Budget Method rely on assumptions regarding physiological requirements for energy and liquid and on the energy density of food rather than on food consumption survey data. This report summarizes work performed to determine the validity of Budget Method assumptions and to assess the potential for error in assigning monitoring priority based on Budget Method results. Budget Method assumptions regarding energy and liquid intake were compared with data from UK, German and US nationwide food consumption surveys. It was found that the Budget Method assumptions of energy intake and liquid intake are higher than mean intakes reported in surveys. The Budget Method assumption regarding energy density of foods also was found to be a slight overestimate. Budget Method TMDIs for case study additives were in each case larger than survey-based 95th percentile per capita additive intake estimates. Based on these results, the Budget Method appears to be a suitably conservative screen for establishing additive monitoring priorities based on potential lifetime average intakes.

An alternative approach to dietary exposure assessment.

The method of dietary exposure assessment currently used by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Dietary Residue Evaluation System (DRES), combines a consumption distribution derived from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) with a single estimate of residue level. The National Academy of Sciences recommended that EPA incorporate both the distribution of residues and the distribution of consumption into their exposure assessment methodology and proposed using a Monte Carlo approach. This paper presents an alternative method, the Joint Distributional Analysis (JDA), that combines the consumption and residue distributions, without relying on random sampling or fitting theoretical distributions like the Monte Carlo method. This method permits simultaneous analysis of the entire diet, including assessing exposure from residues in different foods.