Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase II by thioxolone: a mechanistic and structural study.

This paper examines the functional mechanism of thioxolone, a compound recently identified as a weak inhibitor of human carbonic anhydrase II by Iyer et al. (2006) J. Biomol. Screening 11, 782-791 . Thioxolone lacks sulfonamide, sulfamate, or hydroxamate functional groups that are typically found in therapeutic carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitors, such as acetazolamide. Analytical chemistry and biochemical methods were used to investigate the fate of thioxolone upon binding to CA II, including Michaelis-Menten kinetics of 4-nitrophenyl acetate esterase cleavage, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), oxygen-18 isotope exchange studies, and X-ray crystallography. Thioxolone is proposed to be a prodrug inhibitor that is cleaved via a CA II zinc-hydroxide mechanism known to catalyze the hydrolysis of esters. When thioxolone binds in the active site of CA II, it is cleaved and forms 4-mercaptobenzene-1,3-diol via the intermediate S-(2,4-thiophenyl)hydrogen thiocarbonate. The esterase cleavage product binds to the zinc active site via the thiol group and is therefore the active CA inhibitor, while the intermediate is located at the rim of the active-site cavity. The time-dependence of this inhibition reaction was investigated in detail. Because this type of prodrug inhibitor mechanism depends on cleavage of ester bonds, this class of inhibitors may have advantages over sulfonamides in determining isozyme specificity. A preliminary structure-activity relationship study with a series of structural analogues of thioxolone yielded similar estimates of inhibition constants for most compounds, although two compounds with bromine groups at the C1 carbon of thioxolone were not inhibitory, suggesting a possible steric effect.

High-throughput screening for antimicrobial compounds using a 96-well format bacterial motility absorbance assay.

There is a pressing need to develop new antimicrobial drugs because of the increasing resistance of pathogenic bacteria to existing antibiotics. The preliminary development and validation of a novel methodology for the high-throughput screening of antimicrobial compounds and inhibitors of bacterial motility is described. This method uses a bacterial motility swarming agar assay, combined with the use of offset inoculation of the wells in a standard, clear, 96-well plate, to enable rapid screening of compounds for potential antibiotic and antimotility properties with a standard absorbance microplate reader. Thus, the methodology should be compatible with 96-well laboratory automation technology used in drug discovery and chemical biology studies. To validate the screening method, the Genesis Plus structurally diverse library of 960 biologically active compounds was screened against a motile strain of the gram-negative bacterial pathogen Salmonella typhimurium. The average Z' value for the positive and negative motility controls on all 12 compound plates was 0.67 +/- 0.14, and the signal-to-baseline ratio calculated from the positive and negative controls was 5.9 +/- 1.1. A collection of 70 compounds with well-known antimicrobial properties was successfully identified using this assay.

Inhibition profiling of human carbonic anhydrase II by high-throughput screening of structurally diverse, biologically active compounds.

Human carbonic anhydrase II (CA II), a zinc metalloenzyme, was screened against 960 structurally diverse, biologically active small molecules. The assay monitored CA II esterase activity against the substrate 4-nitrophenyl acetate in a format allowing high-throughput screening. The assay proved to be robust and reproducible with a hit rate of approximately 2%. Potential hits were further characterized by determining their IC(50) and K(d) values and tested for nonspecific, promiscuous inhibition. Three known sulfonamide CA inhibitors were identified: acetazolamide, methazolamide, and celecoxib. Other hits were also found, including diuretics and antibiotics not previously identified as CA inhibitors, for example, furosemide and halazone. These results confirm that many sulfonamide drugs have CA inhibitory properties but also that not all sulfonamides are CA inhibitors. Thus many, but not all, sulfonamide drugs appear to interact with CA II and may target other CA isozymes. The screen also yielded several novel classes of nonsulfonamide inhibitors, including merbromin, thioxolone, and tannic acid. Although these compounds may function by some nonspecific mechanism (merbromin and tannic acid), at least 1 (thioxolone) appears to represent a genuine CA inhibitor. Thus, this study yielded a number of potentially new classes of CA inhibitors and preliminary experiments to characterize their mechanism of action.