Blindness prevalence and cataract surgical coverage in Lumbini Zone and Chetwan District of Nepal.

AIM: To determine the prevalence of blindness, visual impairment and the cataract surgical coverage for people aged 50 years and older in the Lumbini Zone and the Chitwan District (Narayani Zone) of Nepal. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional study in 2006 selected subjects aged 50 years and older through a random multistage cluster sampling and door-to-door enumeration. Ophthalmic examination included visual-acuity assessment and refraction, and anterior and posterior segment examination of the eyes carried out by a trained ophthalmologist and two ophthalmic assistants at centralised locations. RESULTS: The survey examined 5138 of 5196 persons enumerated (response rate of 86.8%). The mean age of the subjects was 61 (SD 9.2) years, and 2701 (52.6%) subjects were women. The age-sex-adjusted prevalence of blindness (best presenting vision <6/60) and visual impairment (better-eye presenting visual acuity of <6/18 to > or = 6/60) were 4.6% (95% CI 3.4 to 5.8) and 18.9% (95% CI 16.4 to 21.4), respectively. Blindness was significantly lower in the hill (3.3%) compared with the plain (5.8%) regions (OR 0.6; 95% CI 0.4 to 0.9). The primary causes for blind eyes were cataract (n = 228, 48.1%), refractive error (n = 149, 31.4%), retinal disorders (n = 19, 4.0%) and corneal opacity (n = 18, 3.8%). The overall cataract surgical coverage was 66.6%. Cataract surgical coverage was not significantly associated with age, sex, literacy or District. CONCLUSION: Although the prevalence of blindness and visual impairment is lower than 10 years ago, particularly among women, correctable blindness due to cataract and refractive error (79.5% of blind people) remains a significant population health problem in Lumbini Zone and Chitwan District.

Cataract surgical coverage and outcome in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.

BACKGROUND: A recently published, population based survey of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China reported on low vision, blindness, and blinding conditions. This paper presents detailed findings from that survey regarding cataract, including prevalence, cataract surgical coverage, surgical outcome, and barriers to use of services. METHODS: The Tibet Eye Care Assessment (TECA) was a prevalence survey of people from randomly selected households from three of the seven provinces of the TAR (Lhoka, Nakchu, and Lingzhr), representing its three main environmental regions. The survey, conducted in 1999 and 2000, assessed visual acuity, cause of vision loss, and eye care services. RESULTS: Among the 15,900 people enumerated, 12,644 were examined (79.6%). Cataract prevalence was 5.2% and 13.8%, for the total population, and those over age 50, respectively. Cataract surgical coverage (vision <6/60) for people age 50 and older (85-90% of cataract blind) was 56% overall, 70% for men and 47% for women. The most common barriers to use of cataract surgical services were distance and cost. In the 216 eyes with cataract surgery, 60% were aphakic and 40% were pseudophakic. Pseudophakic surgery left 19% of eyes blind (<6/60) and an additional 20% of eyes with poor vision (6/24-6/60). Aphakic surgery left 24% of eyes blind and an additional 21% of eyes with poor vision. Even though more women remained blind than men, 28% versus 18% respectively, the different was not statistically significant (p = 0.25). CONCLUSIONS: Cataract surgical coverage was remarkably high despite the difficulty of providing services to such an isolated and sparse population. Cataract surgical outcome was poor for both aphakic and pseudophakic surgery. Two main priorities are improving cataract surgical quality and cataract surgical coverage, particularly for women.

Blindness and eye diseases in Tibet: findings from a randomised, population based survey.

BACKGROUND: Public health officials of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China requested a survey of blindness, eye diseases, and eye care service utilisation to assist the development of a 10 year blindness prevention and treatment plan. The objective of the survey was to determine the prevalence of blindness and visual impairment, as well as cataract surgical coverage and surgical outcome in the TAR. METHODS: The Tibet Eye Care Assessment was a cross sectional prevalence study of three of the seven prefectures (provinces) of the TAR (Lhoka, Nakchu, and Lingzhr) selected to represent its three main environmental regions. The survey sample was selected using a random multistage cluster method. Two teams conducted the survey in a standardised fashion in each prefecture, Lhoka during May and Nakchu during June 1999, and Lingzhr during May 2000. Visual acuity, cause of vision loss, trachoma, and vitamin A deficiency were included in the clinical examination. RESULTS: Among the 15,900 people enumerated, 12,644 were examined for an overall response rate of 79.6%. The crude prevalence of blindness (presenting better eye visual acuity of less than 6/60) was 2.3%; age and sex adjusted blindness prevalence was 1.4% (95% CI 1.3 to 1.5). Visual impairment (better eye presenting visual acuity of 6/24 to 6/60) was found in 10.9% (95% CI 10.5 to 11.2) of the population (age and sex adjusted). Cataract was the primary cause of blindness (50.7%), followed by macular degeneration (12.7%) and corneal opacity (9.7%). CONCLUSION: Blindness is a serious public health problem in Tibet, with prevalence higher than in similar studies in eastern China. As elsewhere in the world, women have an excess burden of blindness compared to men. About 75% of blindness in Tibet can be either prevented or treated. Eye care planning for Tibet must focus on cataract, particularly among women.

Defensive medicine during hospital obstetrical care: a byproduct of the technological age.

This paper presents an alternative perspective on defensive medicine. Defensive medicine is usually understood as arising from the effect of law on medicine through fear of litigation. Of equal significance, however, is the complementary influence of medicine on law through technological innovation, and, more importantly, the way that medicine and law develop dialectically. Each shapes the other in establishing the standards of care central to both clinical medicine and to actual or potential legal action. Excessive testing owing to fear of litigation indicates that defensive medicine is being practised in a particular setting, but it does not explain why this is so. To understand why defensive medicine occurs and why it is so troubling to clinicians requires an understanding, not only of medical and legal developments, but of a political-economic system and the beliefs and values of a society. Defensive medicine is discussed in relation to hospital obstetrical scenarios commonly associated with fear of litigation: fetal oxygen deprivation ("distress"), which is detected using an electronic fetal monitor, and prolonged labor, known as "dystocia". The material presented is taken from a medical anthropological study of obstetrical care in rural British Columbia, Canada. Litigation fears are shown to result less from rare, albeit often devastating, allegations of malpractice than from doctors adopting a role as "fetal champions", together with the introduction of electronic monitoring technology. The paper concludes by asserting that, rather than being in an adversarial relationship, medical practice and associated litigation primarily work together to reinforce each other, and the social conditions in which defensive medicine occurs.