Author Correction: Unrevealed genetic diversity of GII Norovirus in the swine population of North East Italy.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Unrevealed genetic diversity of GII Norovirus in the swine population of North East Italy.

Noroviruses (NoVs) are one of the major causative agents of non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans worldwide. NoVs, belonging to Caliciviridae, are classified into ten genogroups (G) and eight P-groups based on major capsid protein (VP1) and of the RNA-dependent-RNA-polymerase (RdRp), respectively. In swine, the main genogroup and P-group identified are GII and GII.P; which can infect humans too. To date, only one case of GIIP.11 have been identified in swine in Italy while the circulation of other P-types is currently unknown. In the present study, 225 swine faecal samples were collected from 74 swine herds in Veneto region through on-farm monitoring. NoV circulation was particularly high in older pigs. The phylogenetic analysis showed the co-circulation of NoVs belonging to two different P-types: GII.P11 and GII.P18, here described for the first time in Italy, presenting an extensive genetic diversity, never described before worldwide. Distinct NoV genetic subgroups and unique amino acid mutations were identified for each P-type for the first time. This study demonstrated the co-circulation of diverse swine NoVs subgroups in Italy, raising questions on the origin of such diversity and suggesting that continuous monitoring of swine NoVs is needed to track the emergence of potentially zoonotic viruses by recombination events.

Nearly Complete Genome Sequence of a Sapelovirus A Strain Identified in Swine in Italy.

We report the first nearly complete genome sequence of a porcine sapelovirus (PSV) A strain that was identified from feces of piglets suffering from diarrhea in Italy in 2015. Phylogenetic investigations revealed a separate clustering for the Italian PSV, indicating unique molecular features.

Cross-clade protection against H5N1 HPAI strains recently isolated from commercial poultry in Egypt with a single dose of a baculovirus based vaccine.

The current avian influenza epidemic in Egypt caused by circulation of genetically and antigenically diverse H5N1 HPAI viruses in poultry is controlled by applying vaccination among other measures. In this context, the use of a DIVA (differentiating infected from vaccinated animals) vaccination strategy utilizing a vaccine capable of inducing protection against multiple antigenic variants may result as an additional control tool to the existing ones. In this study the efficacy of a single-shot recombinant baculovirus-based vaccine in specific-pathogen-free chickens was tested by experimental challenge with genetically and antigenically diverse H5N1 HPAI viruses belonging to clades 2.2.1 and 2.2.1.1, which have been circulating in Egypt since 2010. A single dose of vaccine, administration at 10 days of age, was shown to confer 100% clinical protection, with a decrease or suppression of virus shedding.

Antigenic and genetic analyses of isolate APMV/wigeon/Italy/3920-1/2005 indicate that it represents a new avian paramyxovirus (APMV-12).

Isolate wigeon/Italy/3920-1/2005 (3920-1) was obtained during surveillance of wild birds in November 2005 in the Rovigo province of Northern Italy and shown to be a paramyxovirus. Analysis of cross-haemagglutination-inhibition tests between 3920-1 and representative avian paramyxoviruses showed only a low-level relationship to APMV-1. Phylogenetic analysis of the whole genome and each of the six genes indicated that while 3920-1 grouped with APMV-1 and APMV-9 viruses, it was quite distinct from these two. In the whole-genome analysis, 3920-1 had 52.1 % nucleotide sequence identity to the closest APMV-1 virus, 50.1 % identity to the APMV-9 genome, and less than 42 % identity to representatives of the other avian paramyxovirus groups. We propose isolate wigeon/Italy/3920-1/2005 as the prototype strain of a further APMV group, APMV-12.

An SYBR Green-based real-time RT-PCR assay for the detection of H5 hemagglutinin subtype avian influenza virus.

Increasing diversity among H5 hemagglutinin (HA) subtype avian influenza (AI) viruses has resulted in the need of novel sensitive and specific molecular assays. In this study, an SYBR Green-based real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RRT-PCR) assay was developed for the detection of H5 subtype AI virus. Sequence analysis of the Mexican lineage H5N2 isolates (subgroup B) revealed several mismatches in the primer/hydrolysis probe set reported in the commonly used RRT-PCR assay for the detection of H5 North American lineage. The present assay was designed to circumvent the challenge that these viruses represent for the specific detection of H5 subtype AI viruses. This RRT-PCR assay successfully detected a range of different H5 subtype AI strains from both Eurasian and North American lineages representing different avian H5 HA clades from diverse geographical locations. The sensitivity of the present method was determined by using in vitro-transcribed RNA and 10-fold serial dilutions of titrated AI viruses. High sensitivity levels were obtained, with limits of detection of 10(0) 50% egg infectious dose (EID50)/mL and 4.2 gene copies/µl. The linear ranges of the assay span within 10(6)-10(0) EID50/mL and 10(6)-10(0) gene copies/µl. The results obtained from this method were directly compared with those of the H5 RRT-PCR assay recommended by the OIE. The comparison was performed with 110 tracheal and cloacal swabs from various bird species collected during field and laboratory investigations in Eurasia and Africa in 2006 and 2008 and showed 100% agreement. This assay is recommended as an alternative method, also allowing a 'double check' approach detection, to be use mainly in outbreak scenarios with higher risk of poultry infections by Central American/Caribbean H5 AI viruses.

Transboundary spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza through poultry commodities and wild birds: a review.

The extensive circulation of the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus in animals and the human health implications which it poses have led to extensive research in unexplored fields and thus a re-assessment of our understanding of this infection. Moreover, widespread infection of poultry has raised concerns about the food safety and trade implications of this infection, necessitating revised international trade regulations. The role of wild birds has been much debated and resources have been invested to clarify the role that they may play in the spread of infection. It is now clear that wild birds may be responsible for primary introduction in a previously free area. To date it is still unclear whether HPAI infection may be maintained in wild bird populations for extended periods of time. This paper reviews existing knowledge on the transboundary spread of HPAI through poultry and poultry commodities and summarises evidence of spread through wild birds.

Conventional H5N9 vaccine suppresses shedding in specific-pathogen-free birds challenged with HPAI H5N1 A/chicken/Yamaguchi/7/2004.

Avian influenza represents one of the greatest concerns for public health that has emerged in recent times. Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses belonging to the H5N1 subtype are endemic in Asia and are spreading in Europe and Africa. Vaccination is now considered a tool to support eradication efforts, provided it is appropriately managed. This study was carried out to establish the degree of clinical protection and reduction of viral shedding induced by a high-specification, commercially available avian influenza vaccine of a different lineage and containing a strain with a heterologous neuraminidase (H5N9 subtype) to the challenge virus isolate A/chicken/Yamaguchi/7/2004 (H5N1 subtype).

Inactivation of avian influenza viruses by chemical agents and physical conditions: a review.

The recent outbreaks of avian influenza (AI) worldwide have highlighted the difficulties in controlling this disease both in developed and in developing countries. Biosecurity is considered the most important tool to prevent and control AI. In certain areas of the world, AI has become endemic and the recent outbreaks in Europe and Africa show that the epidemiological situation is evolving in an unprecedented way. The consequences of this situation are economic losses to the poultry industry, food security issues in developing countries and a serious threat to human health, due to the direct consequences of AI infection in humans, and more alarmingly due to the risk of the generation of a new pandemic virus from the animal reservoir. In this paper, the physical and chemical methods of inactivating AI viruses are reviewed, with particular emphasis on the practicalities of using such methods in the poultry industry.