Online cognitive assessment in the era of COVID-19: Examining the validity of the MEZURE.

Developed more than 2 decades ago, the MEZURE (Assessment Technologies, 1995-2020; https://www.mezure.com/) has received increased attention as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is the first individualized test of cognitive ability created to use an online (local or remote) assessment modality. The MEZURE claims to be aligned both with the extended Gf-Gc theory and the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of abilities. Whereas the test publisher claims it used exploratory factor analysis to investigate the instrument's factor structure, only the subtest factor loadings on the Gf-Gc factors were furnished. No other structural validity information was provided, suggesting that users of the instrument should interpret the scores produced by the MEZURE with caution. Accordingly, the present study used exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to more fully investigate the structural validity of the MEZURE. The results revealed that the MEZURE contains a combined perceptual reasoning (i.e., [Gf/Gv]/working memory [Gwm]) group factor, a verbal ability group factor, and a relatively weak general factor that is dominated by perceptual reasoning. The finding of a paltry general factor that is weakly loaded by verbal subtests is inconsistent with the broader research on traditional cognitive ability assessment and could be related to the online administration format of the test. Future research is required to better understand this finding. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Evaluation of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Fourth Edition as a Measurement Instrument.

The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-4) is the latest iteration of a popular instrument that psychologists employ to assess academic achievement. The WIAT-4 authors make both pragmatic and measurement claims about the instrument. The pragmatic claims involve being useful for identifying individuals in certain academic achievement-related groups (e.g., specific learning disability). The measurement claims are twofold: (a) the instrument's scores represent psychological attributes, and (b) scores transformed to standard score values have equal-interval properties. The WIAT-4 authors did not provide the evidence necessary to support the pragmatic claims in the technical manual, so we could not evaluate them. Thus, we limited our evaluation to the measurement claims for the composite scores. To do so, we used information in the technical manual along with some additional factor analyses. Support for the first measurement claim varies substantially across scores. Although none of the evidence is particularly strong, scores in mathematics and reading domains tend to have more support than the writing and total achievement scores. Support for the second claim was insufficient for all scores. Consequently, we recommend that psychologists wishing to interpret WIAT-4 composite scores limit those interpretations to just a few in the mathematics and reading domains. Second, psychologists should completely refrain from using any composite score in a way that requires equal-interval values (e.g., quantitative score comparisons). Neither of these recommendations necessarily disqualifies the scores from being useful for pragmatic purposes, but support for these uses will need to come from evidence not currently provided in the WIAT-4 technical manual.

Revisiting Carroll's survey of factor-analytic studies: Implications for the clinical assessment of intelligence.

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported in Vol 30(8) of Psychological Assessment (see record 2018-37729-003). In the article "Revisiting Carroll's Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies: Implications for the Clinical Assessment of Intelligence," by Nicholas F. Benson, A. Alexander Beaujean, Ryan J. McGill, and Stefan C. Dombrowski (Psychological Assessment, Advance online publication, May 24, 2018, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000556), the majority of values in the ωH and ωHS columns of Table 4 were incorrect and have been amended. These revisions required text in the fourth paragraph of the Results section to be changed from "Moreover, the ωHS value for Gs is relatively high and very close to the and ωH values for g" to "Moreover, the ωHS values for Gs and Gv are relatively high, exceeding the ω and ωH values for g." All versions of this article have been corrected.] John Carroll's three-stratum theory (and the decades of research behind its development) is foundational to the contemporary practice of intellectual assessment. The present study addresses some limitations of Carroll's work: specification, reproducibility with more modern methods, and interpretive relevance. We reanalyzed select data sets from Carroll's survey of factor analytic studies using confirmatory factor analysis as well as modern indices of interpretive relevance. For the majority of data sets, we found that Carroll likely extracted too many factors representing Stratum II abilities. Moreover, almost all factors representing Stratum II abilities had little-to-no interpretive relevance above and beyond that of general intelligence. We conclude by discussing the implications of this research with respect to the interpretive relevance and clinical utility of scores reflecting cognitive abilities at all strata of the three-stratum theory and offer some directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record

A Misuse of IQ Scores: Using the Dual Discrepancy/Consistency Model for Identifying Specific Learning Disabilities.

The purpose of this article is to describe the origins of patterns of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) methods for identifying specific learning disabilities (SLD) and to provide a comprehensive review of the assumptions and evidence supporting the most commonly-used PSW method in the United States: Dual Discrepancy/Consistency (DD/C). Given their use in determining whether students have access to special education and related services, it is important that any method used to identify SLD have supporting evidence. A review of the DD/C evidence indicates it cannot currently be classified as an evidence-based method for identifying individuals with a SLD. We show that the DD/C method is unsound for three major reasons: (a) it requires test scores have properties that they fundamentally lack, (b) lack of experimental utility evidence supporting its use, and (c) evidence supporting the inability of the method to identify SLD accurately.

The Emotional Eating Scale adapted for children and adolescents: Factorial invariance across adolescent males and females.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study was to assess factorial invariance of the Emotional Eating Scale (EES) across a sample of adolescent males and females. METHOD: Two-hundred-twenty-six middle school students (mean age=13.19years; SD=1.00) completed the EES adapted for children and adolescents and a brief demographic survey. Approximately 40% of the sample were males. An item-level multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was performed specifying a bi-factor model that mapped onto the EES' four scores. RESULTS: We found that the EES was partially invariant across sex in the current study's sample. The instrument appeared to measure the same constructs in both groups, except for the two items: worried and bored. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that overall the EES items measure their intended constructs in both male and female adolescents, but caution should be used when interpreting scores that include the worried and bored items. These two item may have be measuring their constructs differently in adolescent females and males.

Comparing Test Scores Using Information From Criterion-Related Validity Studies.

There is frequently a need to compare a client's test scores from different instruments. If the scores come from instruments that use the same scale, it is tempting to compare the scores directly. Unfortunately, this method can lead clinicians to believe that there is a large difference between scores when the difference is minimal. As an alternative, we outline a method for score comparison that uses information from criterion-related validity studies. Using three examples, we show why this method is more psychometrically sound, produces more accurate comparison scores, and requires little extra work for clinicians than the direct comparison approach. To make the score comparison process easy for clinicians to use, we include an appendix that demonstrates how to implement this method in Microsoft Excel and the free R program.

Using Score Equating and Measurement Invariance to Examine the Flynn Effect in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

The Flynn effect (FE; i.e., increase in mean IQ scores over time) is commonly viewed as reflecting population shifts in intelligence, despite the fact that most FE studies have not investigated the assumption of score comparability. Consequently, the extent to which these mean differences in IQ scores reflect population shifts in cognitive abilities versus changes in the instruments used to measure these abilities is unclear. In this study, we used modern psychometric tools to examine the FE. First, we equated raw scores for each common subtest to be on the same scale across instruments. This enabled the combination of scores from all three instruments into one of 13 age groups before converting raw scores into Z scores. Second, using age-based standardized scores for standardization samples, we examined measurement invariance across the second (revised), third, and fourth editions of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Results indicate that while scores were equivalent across the third and fourth editions, they were not equivalent across the second and third editions. Results suggest that there is some evidence for an increase in intelligence, but also call into question many published FE findings as presuming the instruments' scores are invariant when this assumption is not warranted.

Invariance in the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales for Black and White referred students.

An important part of validity evidence for a test's scores is that they are invariant-measuring the same constructs the same way across different groups. Although published a decade ago, no independent investigation of invariance has been conducted on the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS). In the current study, we investigated invariance of the RIAS's measurement of general cognitive ability (g) between Black and White students who were referred for special education services. Results indicated that the subtest scores showed strict invariance, but g's variance was not the same across groups. Specifically, the White group exhibited a higher mean (d = 0.60) and almost twice the variability in g as the Black group did. Thus, although the between-group mean differences in subtest scores and the Composite Intelligence Index are due to between-group differences in g, the Black group used a narrower range of g than the White group did in answering the RIAS items.

Using the social cognitive theory to understand physical activity among dialysis patients.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to use the social cognitive theory (SCT) constructs self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation to better understand associations of physical activity (PA) behaviors among dialysis patients after controlling for demographic and health-related factors. RESEARCH METHOD/DESIGN: This study was cross-sectional in design. Participants (N = 115; mean age = 61.51 years, SD = 14.01) completed self-report questionnaires during a regularly scheduled dialysis treatment session. Bivariate and hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted to examine relationships among SCT constructs and PA. RESULTS: Significant relationships between PA and self-efficacy (r = .336), self-regulation (r = .280), and outcome expectations (r = .265) were detected among people on dialysis in bivariate analyses. Hierarchical linear regression revealed significant increases in variance explained for the addition of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and covariates (p < .01). Younger age, self-efficacy, and self-regulation were associated (p < .10) with greater participation in physical activity in the final model (R² = .272). Conclusion/Implication: This research supports the use of SCT in understanding PA among people undergoing dialysis treatment. The findings of this study can help health educators and health care practitioners better understand PA and how to promote it among this population. Future research should further investigate which activities dialysis patients participate in across the life span of their disease. Future PA programs should focus on increasing a patient's self-efficacy and self-regulation.

Parental bonds, attachment anxiety, media susceptibility, and body dissatisfaction: a mediation model.

The developmental trajectory of body image dissatisfaction is unclear. Researchers have investigated sociocultural and developmental risk factors; however, the literature needs an integrative etiological model. In 2009, Cheng and Mallinckrodt proposed a dual mediation model, positing that poor-quality parental bonds, via the mechanisms of heightening romantic attachment anxiety and thin-ideal media internalization, increases body dissatisfaction. We tested 2 versions of this model, including an alternate model featuring attachment anxiety in close friendships. We recruited females ages 12-24, primarily from a mid-sized private religious university, to complete self-report measures. The participant sample was ethnically diverse, with approximately 40% endorsing minority status. Results showed that mother care and father care were negatively linked to friendship attachment anxiety and romantic attachment anxiety. Friendship and romantic attachment anxiety were positively linked to media susceptibility. Media susceptibility was positively linked to body image dissatisfaction. Mother care and father care were negatively, indirectly linked to body image dissatisfaction through the mediators of friendship attachment anxiety and media susceptibility. Mother care made a significant, albeit small, contribution to body image dissatisfaction after controlling for other variables. Overall, findings suggest that adverse parent-child relational factors may indirectly elevate body dissatisfaction, operating through attachment anxiety and susceptibility to sociocultural pressures.

Comparing Cattell-Horn-Carroll factor models: differences between bifactor and higher order factor models in predicting language achievement.

Previous research using the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities has shown a relationship between cognitive ability and academic achievement. Most of this research, however, has been done using the Woodcock-Johnson family of instruments with a higher order factor model. For CHC theory to grow, research should be done with other assessment instruments and tested with other factor models. This study examined the relationship between different factor models of CHC theory and the factors' relationships with language-based academic achievement (i.e., reading and writing). Using the co-norming sample for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--4th Edition and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test--2nd Edition, we found that bifactor and higher order models of the subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-4th Edition produced a different set of Stratum II factors, which, in turn, have very different relationships with the language achievement variables of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test--2nd Edition. We conclude that the factor model used to represent CHC theory makes little difference when general intelligence is of major interest, but it makes a large difference when the Stratum II factors are of primary concern, especially when they are used to predict other variables.

Bifactor structure of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence--Fourth Edition.

The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence--Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV; Wechsler, 2012) represents a substantial departure from its predecessor, including omission of 4 subtests, addition of 5 new subtests, and modification of the contents of the 5 retained subtests. Wechsler (2012) explicitly assumed a higher-order structure with general intelligence (g) as the second-order factor that explained all the covariation of several first-order factors but failed to consider a bifactor model. The WPPSI-IV normative sample contains 1,700 children aged 2 years and 6 months through 7 years and 7 months, bifurcated into 2 age groups: 2:6-3:11 year olds (n = 600) and 4:0-7:7 year olds (n = 1,100). This study applied confirmatory factor analysis to the WPPSI-IV normative sample data to test the fit of a bifactor model and to determine the reliability of the resulting factors. The bifactor model fit the WPPSI-IV normative sample data as well as or better than the higher-order models favored by Wechsler (2012). In the bifactor model, the general factor accounted for more variance in every subtest than did its corresponding domain-specific factor and the general factor accounted for more total and common variance than all domain-specific factors combined. Further, the domain-specific factors exhibited poor reliability independent of g (i.e., ωh coefficients of .05 to .33). These results suggest that only the general intelligence dimension was sufficiently robust and precise for clinical use.

Predictors of older adults' personal and community mobility: using a comprehensive theoretical mobility framework.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: Forty-six percent of older adults report limitations in their mobility, and maintaining mobility is considered an important factor in keeping adults independent and active in later life. This study tests a comprehensive theoretical framework of mobility (Webber, S. C., Porter, M. M., & Menec, V. H. [2010]. Mobility in older adults: A comprehensive framework. The Gerontologist, 50[4], 443-450. doi:10.1093/geront/gnq013) identifying multiple determinants that additively influence mobility (financial, psychosocial, environmental, physical, and cognitive), as well as cross-cutting influences of gender, culture, and biography. DESIGN AND METHODS: Structural equation modeling was used to examine several models of mobility using data from 6,112 respondents in the Health and Retirement Study (mean age: 74.74, 85% white, 41% male, 57% married). RESULTS: The original measurement model fit the data well. When both personal and community mobility were simultaneously predicted, only the physical, cognitive, psychosocial, and environmental determinants were retained in the independent models. Age and marital status also predicted personal and community mobility. Although most of these relationships were in the expected direction, interestingly when both forms of mobility were included in the model, poorer cognitive ability was associated with greater personal mobility in the final model. IMPLICATIONS: Results indicate the importance of accounting for and examining comprehensive models of mobility. The factors affecting older adults' mobility are complex, and these relationships need to be explored in more depth to ensure the maintenance of individuals' independence and quality of life.

Commentary on strengthening the assessment of factorial invariance across population subgroups: a commentary on Varni et al. (2013).

In his commentary on Varni et al.'s (Qual Life Res. doi: 10.1007/s11136-013-0370-4 , 2013) article, McIntosh (Qual Life Res. doi: 10.1007/s11136-013-0465-y , 2013) has two main arguments. First, we should have paid more attention to statistical tests (i.e., χ 2 values) instead of approximate fit indexes for our analysis, especially with the baseline model. Second, Bayesian methods are better than the frequentist methods we used in determining the model's invariance across age and gender groups. We believe that statistical tests do have a place in assessing model fit, but overemphasis on them, especially with larger sample sizes, can lead to errant decisions. Second, while we agree that Bayesian methods have the potential to contribute much to the field of assessing invariance, more development needs to be conducted before they can be widely utilized in assessing factorial invariance across groups.

The relationship between cognitive ability and depression: a longitudinal data analysis.

PURPOSE: There is literature indicating cognitive ability and depression are related, but few studies have examined the direction of the relationship. This study examined the relationship between depression levels and cognitive abilities from adolescence to early adulthood. METHODS: Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 14,322), this study used path modeling to investigate the relationship between depression and cognitive ability at baseline and again 8 years later. RESULTS: After controlling for initial levels of depression, cognitive ability, and other covariates, depressive symptoms in adolescence are related to cognitive ability in early adulthood, but adolescent cognitive ability is not related to adult depression levels. Moreover, after controlling for adolescent levels of depression and cognitive ability, the cognitive ability-depression relationship disappears in adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: The cognitive ability-depression relationship appears early in life, and it is likely that the presence of depressive symptoms leads to lower cognitive ability. Thus, intervening at early signs of depression not only can help alleviate depression, but will likely have an effect of cognitive ability as well.

Factorial invariance of pediatric patient self-reported fatigue across age and gender: a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis approach utilizing the PedsQL™ Multidimensional Fatigue Scale.

OBJECTIVES: In order to compare multidimensional fatigue research findings across age and gender subpopulations, it is important to demonstrate measurement invariance, that is, that the items from an instrument have equivalent meaning across the groups studied. This study examined the factorial invariance of the 18-item PedsQL™ Multidimensional Fatigue Scale items across age and gender and tested a bifactor model. METHODS: Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA) was performed specifying a three-factor model across three age groups (5-7, 8-12, and 13-18 years) and gender. MG-CFA models were proposed in order to compare the factor structure, metric, scalar, and error variance across age groups and gender. The analyses were based on 837 children and adolescents recruited from general pediatric clinics, subspecialty clinics, and hospitals in which children were being seen for well-child checks, mild acute illness, or chronic illness care. RESULTS: A bifactor model of the items with one general factor influencing all the items and three domain-specific factors representing the General, Sleep/Rest, and Cognitive Fatigue domains fit the data better than oblique factor models. Based on the multiple measures of model fit, configural, metric, and scalar invariance were found for almost all items across the age and gender groups, as was invariance in the factor covariances. The PedsQL™ Multidimensional Fatigue Scale demonstrated strict factorial invariance for child and adolescent self-report across gender and strong factorial invariance across age subpopulations. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support an equivalent three-factor structure across the age and gender groups studied. Based on these data, it can be concluded that pediatric patients across the groups interpreted the items in a similar manner regardless of their age or gender, supporting the multidimensional factor structure interpretation of the PedsQL™ Multidimensional Fatigue Scale.

The effects of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition cognitive abilities on math achievement.

This study used structural equation modeling to examine the effect of Stratum III (i.e., general intelligence) and Stratum II (i.e., Comprehension-Knowledge, Fluid Reasoning, Short-Term Memory, Processing Speed, and Visual Processing) factors of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities, as operationalized by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003a) subtests, on Quantitative Knowledge, as operationalized by the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Second Edition (WIAT-II; Wechsler, 2002) subtests. Participants came from the WISC-IV/WIAT-II linking sample (n=550). We compared models that predicted Quantitative Knowledge using only Stratum III factors, only Stratum II factors, and both Stratum III and Stratum II factors. Results indicated that the model with only the Stratum III factor predicting Quantitative Knowledge best fit the data.

The effects of fish oil supplementation on markers of inflammation in chronic kidney disease patients.

OBJECTIVE: One prevalent characteristic of all stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is excessive production of proinflammatory cytokines. Fish oil (FO) supplementation has been reported to lower levels of proinflammatory cytokines. The benefits of FO for an extensive range of populations and a variety of health concerns are apparent, yet the anti-inflammatory benefits for nondialysis CKD patients are not as well documented. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the daily consumption of FO (1,400 mg eicosapentaenoic acid + 1,000 mg docosahexaenoic acid) on interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) for 8 weeks in nondialysis CKD patients. DESIGN, SETTING, AND SUBJECTS: In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled intervention, the effect of 8 weeks of FO administration on IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in nondialysis CKD patients were evaluated. INTERVENTION: Thirty-one nondialysis CKD patients (17 = FO; 14 = placebo) randomly received either FO dietary supplementation 2.4 g/day (1,400 mg eicosapentaenoic acid + 1,000 mg docosahexaenoic acid) or placebo (safflower oil) for 8 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α were all measured as markers of inflammation. RESULTS: One-way analysis of variance revealed no significant differences in IL-6 (P = .06), IL-1ß (P = .18), and TNF-α (P = .20) between groups in pretest values. Additionally, no pretest differences existed between groups for age (P = .549), weight (P = .324), waist circumference (P = .086), gender (P = .591), and ethnicity (P = .875). Covariance was calculated using compliance, age, gender, ethnicity, body weight, and waist circumference as covariates. No significant differences were discovered between groups after FO supplementation for IL-6 (P = .453) and TNF-α (P = .242). A significant difference was discovered for IL-1ß (P = .050) with lower levels in the FO group. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study are in agreement with some previous studies that suggest that FO supplementation has no effect on plasma proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α or IL-6, but does have an effect on IL-1ß in nondialysis CKD patients.

The structure of cognitive abilities in youths with manic symptoms: a factorial invariance study.

This study compared the structure of cognitive ability (specifically, verbal/crystallized [Gc] and visual-spatial ability [Gv]), as measured in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, in youth with manic symptoms with a nationally representative group of similarly aged youth. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis found the majority of the estimated parameters were invariant between the groups, although there was a difference in the intercepts for the Similarities subtest and difference in unique variances for the Picture Completion, Comprehension, and Picture Arrangement subtests. Thus, although there are many neurological changes associated with manic symptoms, the structure of verbal/crystallized and visual-spatial abilities appear relatively robust and invariant. As Gc and Gv are the primary domains on all the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, results also indicate that clinical interpretation of the Wechsler scales may be appropriate to measure cognitive performance in youths with manic symptoms.

The Effects of Lowering Uric Acid Levels Using Allopurinol on Components of Metabolic Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Researchers have reported an independent direct relationship between lipid levels and hyperuricemia with MetS. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between serum uric acid levels and lipids among patients on allopurinol. METHODS: A retrospective secondary data analysis was conducted on 66 adult patients from a family health clinic in Central Texas. Medical records used were recorded during a nine year period (2002 - 2010) ascertaining the relationship between uric acid and lipids. RESULTS: Spearman correlations revealed a weak correlation between uric acid and total cholesterol, a weak correlation between uric acid and triglycerides and LDL-C. A weak inverse correlation was discovered between uric acid and HDL-C. A moderate correlation was discovered when all lipid variables combined were compared to uric acid. CONCLUSIONS: We discovered LDL-C and triglycerides to be significant predictors of uric acid with weak correlations. Additionally, weak correlations existed between uric acid and total cholesterol and HDL-C with an inverse relationship discovered with HDL-C. These findings support the literature suggesting that uric acid is more likely to be associated with total cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition, new discoveries serve as an indication that LDL-C may also be associated with uric acids levels. The mechanism by which uric acid may regulate lipids is elusive but suggestions have included suppression of lipid peroxidase and decreases in critical lipase activity.