Factor Structure of the Teacher Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in a Large Community-Based Sample: An Investigation of Alternative Measurement Models.

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is a screening measure commonly used to assess behavioral and emotional symptoms and strengths among children and adolescents. However, despite its frequent use, its underlying factor structure remains an important area of inquiry. Whereas the original five-factor structure has often been supported through exploratory factor analysis, results from confirmatory analyses continue to yield mixed results. We analyzed data from youth in Grades K through 12 from a large epidemiologic study in the Southeastern United States. Teacher-report SDQ data were used to test three confirmatory factor models by school level (i.e., elementary [Grades K-5] and secondary [Grades 6-12]): The original five-factor model, a three-factor model, and a bifactor model. Model fit indices and reliability measures supported the original five-factor model as the preferred model when using the teacher-reported SDQ with both elementary and secondary school children. Implications for using the SDQ in applied research and predictive modeling are discussed.

Food Acquisition and Shopping Patterns in the United States: Characteristics and Relation to Body Mass Index in the US Food Acquisition and Purchase Survey.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies examined the association between shopping distance, frequency, and store type separately. OBJECTIVES: The objective is to explore food acquisition and shopping habits using multidimensional measures and examine its association with body mass index (BMI). DESIGN: A cross-sectional study was conducted. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Four thousand four hundred sixty-six households from the US Food Acquisition and Purchase Survey during April 2012 to January 2013 were included in this analysis. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Both continuous BMI and categorical BMI were used. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Latent class analysis was used to identify the latent profiles using travel distance and perceived travel time between residential location and primary store, store type, transportation mode, and farmers' market utilization. Multivariable linear regression and multinomial logistic regression were used to assess the association between the identified patterns and continuous and categorical BMI. All analyses were stratified by urbanicity. RESULTS: Overall, 65% (weighted percentage) of households were located in an urban tract. Thirty-seven percent were categorized as Class 1 (households that shopped more proximally, used their own vehicle, and shopped at a farmers' market), 50% as Class 2 (households that shopped more distally, used their own vehicle, and shopped at a farmers' market), and 14% as Class 3 (households that shopped proximally but perceived longer travel time, used someone else's vehicle, and did not shop at a farmers' market). Among rural households, 54% were Class 1 and 46% were Class 2 (Class 3 was not identified). Socioeconomic status characteristics, proximity, and store food price concerns were associated with the identified patterns. However, no significant association was found between the identified patterns and BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Food acquisition and shopping patterns were not associated with BMI in this national sample. However, future studies should also investigate the role of economic factors, such as food prices, in relation to shopping patterns and BMI.

Identification of factors related to food insecurity and the implications for social determinants of health screenings.

BACKGROUND: Food insecurity and other social determinants of health are increasingly being measured at routine health care visits. Understanding the needs and behaviors of individuals or families who screen positive for food insecurity may inform the types of resources they need. The goal of this research was to identify modifiable characteristics related to endorsement of two food insecurity screener questions to better understand the resources necessary to improve outcomes. METHODS: Analysis was conducted focusing on cross-sectional survey data collected in 2015-2016 from participants (N = 442) living in urban neighborhoods in Ohio with limited access to grocery stores. Food insecurity was assessed by the endorsement of at least one of two items. These were used to categorize participants into two groups: food insecure(N = 252) or food secure (N = 190). Using logistic regression, we estimated the association between several variables and the food insecure classification. RESULTS: Those that used their own car when shopping for food had lower odds of reporting food insecurity, as did those with affirmative attitudes related to the convenience of shopping for and ease of eating healthy foods. As shopping frequency increased, the odds of food insecurity increased. Food insecurity also increased with experience of a significant life event within the past 12 months. There was an 81% increase in the odds of reporting food insecurity among participants who received Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits compared to those not receiving Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits. CONCLUSIONS: Along with referrals to SNAP, clinicians can further address screening-identified food insecurity through provision of transportation supports and linkages to other social services while collaborating on community initiatives to promote convenient and easy access to healthy foods. The needs and behaviors associated with screens indicating food insecurity also have implications for impacting other SDH, and thus, health outcomes.

Racialized Experiences Differentiate Food Security Among African American Adults.

BACKGROUND: Patterns of food security persistently vary by race, yet limited research has examined how community-specific experiences of race and racism are associated with nutritional outcomes. OBJECTIVES: This analysis describes a novel approach for classifying experiences of race and racism and explores the relationship between identified classes and measures of food security and diet quality. METHODS: Cross-sectional self-reported survey data from 306 African American adults living in two urban midwestern cities were collected in 2017-2018. Measures of racialized experiences assessed consciousness of race, perceived discrimination, and health effects of perceived discrimination. Food security was measured with a six-item screener and diet quality with the Healthy Eating Index-2010. Latent class analysis was used to generate racialized classes. Bivariate analyses were conducted to examine differences in class membership by sociodemographics and nutrition outcomes. RESULTS: Participants were majority women who were receiving Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits. Three racialized classes were identified: Class 1 reported few racialized experiences (42.8% of the sample), Class 2 was racially conscious with few experiences of discrimination (45.1%), and Class 3 was both racially conscious and affected by racialized actions (12.1%). Racialized classes were significantly different in mean household income, level of education, home ownership, and job loss in the past year. Class 3 was the least represented among those that were food secure and the most represented among those that were very low food secure. There were no differences by class in Healthy Eating Index-2010 scores. DISCUSSION: Findings offer an innovative method for measuring exposures to racism and for assessing its relationship to food security. Findings highlight heterogeneity of racialized experiences in similar contexts as well as potential root cause targets such as wages, education, home ownership, and employment that may be modulated to mitigate the effects of racism on food insecurity.

Spoken Word Learning in Children With Developmental Language Disorder or Dyslexia.

Purpose Word learning difficulties have been documented in multiple studies involving children with dyslexia and developmental language disorder (DLD; see also specific language impairment). However, no previous studies have directly contrasted word learning in these two frequently co-occurring disorders. We examined word learning in second-grade students with DLD-only and dyslexia-only as compared to each other, peers with both disorders (DLD + dyslexia), and peers with typical development. We hypothesized that children with dyslexia-only and DLD-only would show differences in word learning due to differences in their core language strengths and weaknesses. Method Children (N = 244) were taught eight novel pseudowords paired with unfamiliar objects. The teaching script included multiple exposures to the phonological form, the pictured object, a verbal semantic description of the object, and spaced retrieval practice opportunities. Word learning was assessed immediately after instruction with tasks requiring recall or recognition of the phonological and semantic information. Results Children with dyslexia-only performed significantly better on existing vocabulary measures than their peers with DLD-only. On experimental word learning measures, children in the dyslexia-only and DLD + dyslexia groups showed significantly poorer performance than typically developing children on all word learning tasks. Children with DLD-only differed significantly from the TD group on a single word learning task assessing verbal semantic recall. Conclusions Overall, results indicated that children with dyslexia display broad word learning difficulties extending beyond the phonological domain; however, this contrasted with their relatively strong performance on measures of existing vocabulary knowledge. More research is needed to understand relations between word learning abilities and overall vocabulary knowledge and how to close vocabulary gaps for children with both disorders. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14832717.

Impact of County Sociodemographic Factors and State Policy on Geographic Access to Behavior Analysts Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

To examine the relationship between geographic access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and county sociodemographic factors and state policy, we integrated publicly available data from the U.S. Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection, Behavior Analyst Certification Board's certificant registry, and U.S. Census. The study sample included U.S. counties and county equivalents (e.g., parishes, independent cities) in 49 states and D.C. (N = 3040). Using GIS software, we assigned BCBAs to counties based on their residence, allocated children via school districts to counties, and generated per-capita children with ASD/BCBA ratios. We distributed counties into five categories based on these ratios: no BCBAs (reference), ≥ 31, 21-30, 11-20, > 0-10. We used a generalized logit model to conduct analyses. Highly affluent and urban counties had the highest access to BCBAs with odds ratio estimates for affluence ranging from 2.26 to 5.26. County-level poverty was positively associated with access, yet this relationship was moderated by urbanicity. Race-ethnicity and healthcare insurance coverage were negatively related to access. Other variables were not significant. Targeting non-urban and less affluent counties for provider recruitment and maintenance could most improve access to BCBAs. In addition to strategies specific to BCBAs for improving geographic access, traditional strategies used for other healthcare providers could be useful.

Persistence and transience of food insecurity and predictors among residents of two disadvantaged communities in South Carolina.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about patterns of household food insecurity (HFI) across more than two time points in adults in the United States, the frequency predictors of different trajectories. The distinctions between persistent and transient food insecurity trajectories may be crucial to developing effective interventions. OBJECTIVE: To characterize dominant trajectories of food security status over three time points between 2013 and 2016 and identify demographic, socioeconomic and health-related predictors of persistent and transient HFI. DESIGN: Cohort study in disadvantaged communities in South Carolina. SETTING: and subjects: 397 middle-aged participants, predominantly female, African American, living in USDA-designated food deserts. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Household food insecurity over time using the 18-item USDA's Household Food Security Survey Module. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Descriptive analyses of food security trajectories and multinomial regression analyses. RESULTS: At baseline (2013-2014), 61% of households reported HFI during the previous 12 months, which decreased to 54% in 2015 and to 51% in 2016. Only 27% of households were persistently food secure, 36% experienced transient and 37% persistent food insecurity. Female sex (OR 2.7, 95%CI 1.2-5.9), being married or living with a partner (OR 2.4, 95CI% 1.1-5.3) and fair health status (OR 4.4, 95%CI 2.2-8.8) were associated with increased odds of persistent food insecurity. Fair health was also a significant predictor of transient food insecurity. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that future research should focus on persistent versus transient trajectories separately and that tailored interventions may be needed to make progress on alleviating food insecurity among disadvantaged communities.

Small Improvements in an Urban Food Environment Resulted in No Changes in Diet Among Residents.

Living in a low-income neighborhood with low access to healthy food retailers is associated with increased risk for chronic disease. The U.S. Healthy Food Financing Initiative (HFFI) provides resources to support the development of infrastructure to improve neighborhood food environments. This natural experiment examined a HFFI funded food hub that was designed to be implemented by a community development corporation in an urban neighborhood in Cleveland, Ohio. It was intended to increase access to affordable, local, and healthy foods; establish programs to increase social connections and support for healthy eating; and create job opportunities for residents. We used a quasi-experimental, longitudinal design to externally evaluate food hub implementation and its impact on changes to the built and social environment and dietary patterns among residents living in the intervention neighborhood (n = 179) versus those in a comparison (n = 150) neighborhood. Overall, many of the food hub components were not implemented fully, and dose and reach of the executed food hub components was low. There were statistically significant improvements in observed availability of healthy foods in the intervention neighborhood versus the comparison neighborhood. There were no changes over time in diet quality scores, total caloric intake, or fruit and vegetable intake in the intervention neighborhood. In conclusion, low dose implementation of a food hub led to small improvements in availability of healthy foods but not in dietary patterns. Findings highlight challenges to implementing a food hub in neighborhoods with low access to healthy food retailers.

Recruitment and Retention for the Evaluation of a Healthy Food Initiative in Economically Disadvantaged, Majority African American Communities.

Effective recruitment and retention supports equitable participation in research. The aim of this article is to describe recruitment and retention methods among residents of highly disadvantaged, predominantly African American communities in the southeastern United States during the evaluation of a healthy food access initiative. We proposed that active and passive recruitment methods, intensive retention strategies, community outreach and involvement, over-enrollment to anticipate attrition, and applied principles of community participation would achieve the study's recruitment and retention goals. The enrollment goal of 560 was met at 94% (n = 527), and the retention goal of 400 was achieved (n = 408).

Perceived Discrimination Trajectories and Depressive Symptoms Among Middle-Aged and Older Black Adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Perceived discrimination is a risk factor for poor mental health. However, most studies measure discrimination at one time point, which does not account for heterogeneity in the cumulative patterning of exposure to discrimination. To address this gap, we examine the association between discrimination trajectories and depressive symptoms among black middle-aged and older adults. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Data were analyzed from a subsample of black Health and Retirement Study respondents (2006-2018, N = 2926, older than 50 years). General discrimination and racial discrimination trajectories were constructed based on the Everyday Discrimination Scale using repeated measures latent profile analyses. We examined the extent to which the association between discrimination trajectories are differentially associated with depressive symptoms (8-item Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale) using negative binomial regression models adjusted for potential confounders. Effect modification by age and gender was tested. RESULTS: Individuals in the persistently high (incident rate ratio [IRR]: 1.70; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.49-1.95) and moderate general discrimination trajectories (IRR: 1.19; 95% CI: 1.06-1.33) were more likely to have elevated depressive symptoms in comparison to those in the persistently low trajectory. This relationship was strongest among older adults aged older than 65 years. Respondents in the persistently high racial discrimination trajectory (IRR: 1.50; 95% CI: 1.29-1.73) had a higher risk of elevated depressive symptoms in comparison to respondents in the persistently low trajectory. Sensitivity analyses indicated that there was an independent association between persistently high racial discrimination trajectory class and elevated depressive symptoms, after adjusting for racial discrimination measured at a single time point. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Characterizing longitudinal patterns of perceived discrimination may facilitate the stratification of mental health risk and vulnerability among black middle-aged and older adults. Trajectories of racial discrimination may inform risk of worse depressive symptoms more accurately than a single assessment of discrimination.

Socioeconomic position is associated with glycemic control in youth and young adults with type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Health inequities persist in youth and young adults (YYA) with type 1diabetes in achieving optimal glycemic control. The purpose of this study was to assess the contribution of multiple indicators of social need to these inequities. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Two hundred and twenty two YYA withtype 1 diabetes enrolled in the SEARCH Food Insecurity Study in South Carolina and Washington between the years 2013 and 2015 were included. Latent class analysis was used to identify socioeconomic profiles based on household income, parental education, health insurance, household food insecurity, and food assistance. Profiles were evaluated in relation to glycemic control using multivariable linear and logistic regression, with HbA1c > 9%(75 mmol/mol) defined as high-risk glycemic control. RESULTS: Two profiles were identified: a lower socioeconomic profile included YYA whose parents had lower income and/or education, and were more likely to be uninsured, receive food assistance, and be food insecure. A higher socioeconomic profile included YYA whose circumstances were opposite to those in the lower socioeconomic profile. Those with a lower socioeconomic profile were more likely to have high-risk glycemic control relative to those with a higher socioeconomic profile (OR = 2.24, 95%CI = 1.16-4.33). CONCLUSIONS: Lower socioeconomic profiles are associated with high-risk glycemic control among YYA with type 1 diabetes. This supports recommendations that care providers of YYA with type 1 diabetes assess individual social needs in tailoring diabetes management plans to the social context of the patient.

Utilization of speech-language, occupational and physical therapy by diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Although Medicaid coverage of treatment for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is expanding, we know little about when children receive speech-language, occupational and/or physical therapy. The objective of this study was to examine the relationships between predisposing, enabling and need characteristics and utilization of speech-language, occupational and physical therapy by diagnosis of ASD. METHODS: We integrated administrative, Medicaid and Census data using a large sample of children with ASD who enrolled in a 1915(c) Home and Community Based Medicaid waiver in a south-eastern state (N = 1,968) to explore (1) the percent of treatment utilization by ASD diagnosis, (2) the type of therapy utilized and (3) the predisposing, enabling and need characteristics associated with utilization. RESULTS: The percent of utilization was 71%; 65.8% utilized SLT, 33.4% utilized OT and 18.4% utilized PT. Enabling (i.e., urbanicity, age of diagnosis and early intervention programme enrolment) and need (i.e., intellectual disability) characteristics were associated with utilization whereas predisposing social characteristics (i.e., sex and child race-ethnicity and neighbourhood racial composition, poverty and affluence) were not associated with utilization. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the value in monitoring when children begin treatment. As governments in the United States and globally work to maximize children's potential, additional research that can inform efforts to facilitate earlier utilization will be key to promoting optimal outcomes.

Effects of a food hub initiative in a disadvantaged community: A quasi-experimental evaluation.

A quasi-experiment evaluated a food hub's (FH) impact in a low-income/low-access (food desert) setting on fruit and vegetable (F&V) intake, diet quality, kilocalories, perceived food environment, BMI, and farmers' market shopping versus a matched community (n = 265 FH, n = 262 Comparison). Comparison shoppers had better baseline perceptions of their food environment, but FH shoppers improved significantly more than Comparison shoppers. Comparison shoppers significantly increased F&V intake versus FH shoppers. Effects were not significant for other diet outcomes, BMI, or farmers' market shopping. Factors besides spacial access to healthy food need consideration to address dietary intake and obesity in disadvantaged communities.

Assessing the Healthy People 2020 Objective to Expand Early Treatment Receipt Among a National Sample of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the progress of the Healthy People 2020 (HP2020) objective to increase the proportion of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who receive treatment by 48 months old and to examine the relationship between predisposing, enabling, and need factors and age of initial treatment receipt. METHOD: We used data from the National Survey of Children's Health, 2016 to 2017, a nationally representative study of US children. Our sample included children aged 3 to 17 years old with ASD who received treatment (N = 1333). We conducted χ goodness of fit tests and logistic regression. RESULTS: The HP2020 objective to enroll 57.6% of 8-year-old children with ASD in treatment by 48 months old was not met (40.9%). Among 3- to 5-year-old children with ASD, the proportion who received treatment by 48 months old was more than double that of 8-year-old children (88.3%). We detected social inequities and significant differences by provider type and state mandate. CONCLUSION: Research with larger samples is needed to continue tracking progress. If the goal continues not to be met, work will be required to explain stagnation and to inform additional targeted efforts to reduce the age of initial treatment.

Comparing Neighborhoods of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Medicaid Waiver Program and a State Population, 2007-2015.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated equity in enrollment in a Medicaid waiver program for early intensive behavioral intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). METHODS: State administrative, Medicaid, and U.S. Census data for children enrolled in the waiver program between 2007 and 2015 (N=2,111) were integrated. Multivariate and bivariate analyses were used to compare enrollees' neighborhood demographic characteristics with those of the state's general population, with controls for enrollees' age, sex, and race-ethnicity. RESULTS: Findings indicate that in general, enrollment was equitable. During the years in which there were inequities, children who lived in neighborhoods of privilege were favored. These neighborhoods had higher median incomes, lower poverty levels, and fewer female-headed households and were located in urban areas. CONCLUSIONS: As states work to provide equitable treatment to children with ASD and their families, it is important to track potential inequities between children who do and do not enroll in services and to use this information to inform outreach efforts. States may turn to South Carolina for insight on how to ensure equity.

Food insecurity, childhood hunger and caregiver life experiences among households with children in South Carolina, USA.

OBJECTIVE: We explored how positive and negative life experiences of caregivers are associated with household food insecurity. DESIGN: The Midlands Family Study (MFS) was a cross-sectional study with three levels of household food security: food secure, food insecure without child hunger and food insecure with child hunger. Ordinal logistic regression analysis was used for analyses of negative and positive life experiences (number, impact, type) associated with food insecurity. SETTING: An eight-county region in South Carolina, USA, in 2012-2013. PARTICIPANTS: Caregivers (n 511) in households with children. RESULTS: Caregivers who reported greater numbers of negative life experiences and greater perceived impact had increased odds of household food insecurity and reporting their children experienced hunger. Each additional negative life experience count of the caregiver was associated with a 16 % greater odds of food insecurity without child hunger and a 28 % greater odds of child hunger. Each one-unit increase in the negative impact score (e.g. a worsening) was associated with 8 % higher odds of food insecurity without child hunger and 12 % higher odds of child hunger. Negative work experiences or financial instability had the strongest association (OR = 1·8; 95 % CI 1·5, 2·2) with child hunger. Positive life experiences were generally not associated with food security status, with one exception: for each unit increase in the number of positive experiences involving family and other relationships, the odds of child hunger decreased by 22 %. CONCLUSIONS: More research is needed to understand approaches to build resilience against negative life experiences and strengthen positive familial, community and social relationships.

Socioecological Path Analytic Model of Diet Quality among Residents in Two Urban Food Deserts.

BACKGROUND: Diet is critical to chronic disease prevention, yet there are persistent disparities in diet quality among Americans. The socioecological model suggests multiple factors, operating at multiple levels, influence diet quality. OBJECTIVE: The goal was to model direct and indirect relationships among healthy eating identity, perceived control of healthy eating, social support for healthy eating, food retail choice block scores, perceptions of healthy food availability, and food shopping behaviors and diet quality measured using Healthy Eating Index-2010 scores (HEI-2010) for residents living in two urban communities defined as food deserts. DESIGN: A cross-sectional design was used including data collected via self-reported surveys, 24-dietary recalls, and through objective observations of food retail environments. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Data collection occurred in 2015-2016 in two low-income communities in Cleveland (n=243) and Columbus (n=244), OH. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: HEI-2010 scores were calculated based on the average of three 24-hour dietary recalls using the Nutrition Data System for Research. ANALYSIS: Separate path models, controlled for income, were run for each community. Analysis was guided by a conceptual model with 15 hypothesized direct and indirect effects on HEI-2010 scores. Associations were considered statistically significant at P<0.05 and P<0.10 because of modest sample sizes in each community. RESULTS: Across both models, significant direct effects on HEI-2010 scores included healthy eating identity (ß=.295, Cleveland; ß=.297, Columbus, P<0.05) and distance traveled to primary food store (ß=.111, Cleveland, P<0.10; ß=.175, Columbus, P<0.05). Perceptions of healthy food availability had a significant, inverse effect in the Columbus model (ß=-.125, P<0.05). The models explained greater variance in HEI-2010 scores for the Columbus community compared with Cleveland (R2=.282 and R2=.152, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the need for tailored dietary intervention approaches even within demographically comparable communities. Interventions aimed at improving diet quality among residents living in food deserts may need to focus on enhancing healthy eating identity using culturally relevant approaches while at the same time addressing the need for transportation supports to access healthy food retailers located farther away.

Factors Associated With Batterer Intervention Program Attrition.

Batterer intervention programs' (BIPs) curriculum have been criticized for their one-size-fits-all approach to rehabilitation with recent research suggesting specialized and client-centric approaches to batterer intervention may be more effective than traditional programming. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been examined as a risk factor for intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration and numerous studies suggest a relationship between ACEs and low mental health treatment engagement. However, absent from the conversation is how ACEs may influence BIP treatment engagement and more specifically how ACEs influence BIP program attendance and attrition. The current study used administrative data from a sample of 268 men enrolled in a county-operated BIP to explore this question. BIP participants who experienced any ACEs, only household dysfunction ACEs, and/or both household dysfunction ACEs and child abuse/neglect ACEs had decreased odds of BIP attrition compared to participants with no ACEs. These findings have practical implications regarding screening, service delivery, and BIP curricula and highlight additional research needed on this topic.

Underutilization of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention Among 3-Year-Old Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Funding for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for children with autism spectrum disorder is rapidly expanding. Yet we know little about children's utilization, and research on inequities in utilization is lacking. We examined the relationship between utilization during the first year of EIBI and (a) child race-ethnicity and (b) neighborhood characteristics. Using a sample of children eligible for a Medicaid waiver through a novel policy of presumptive eligibility (N = 108), we estimated a series of two-level growth curve models. Children's average utilization ranged between 24 and 48% of weekly hours, and utilization did not differ by race-ethnicity or neighborhood during the first year. Findings underscore the need to monitor utilization of EIBI and warrant research on the feasibility of EIBI provision in the general population.

Treatment Utilization Trajectories among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Differences by Race-Ethnicity and Neighborhood.

Health coverage of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for children with autism spectrum disorder is expanding. Yet there is no longitudinal research on patterns of or inequities in utilization of EIBI. We integrated state administrative records with Medicaid and Census data for children enrolled in an EIBI Medicaid waiver (N = 730) to identify and describe the type and prevalence of treatment utilization trajectories, and to examine the association between trajectory types and (a) child race-ethnicity and (b) neighborhood racial composition, poverty, affluence, and urbanicity. We identified four utilization trajectories (Low, Low-Moderate, Moderate, and High users). Race-ethnicity and neighborhood affluence were associated with trajectory membership. As coverage expands, policy makers should consider strategies to improve overall treatment utilization and enhance equity.