Fatal Infection in Ferrets after Ocular Inoculation with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus.

Ocular inoculation of a clade 2.3.4.4b highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus caused severe and fatal infection in ferrets. Virus was transmitted to ferrets in direct contact. The results highlight the potential capacity of these viruses to cause human disease after either respiratory or ocular exposure.

An aggregated dataset of serial morbidity and titer measurements from influenza A virus-infected ferrets.

Data from influenza A virus (IAV) infected ferrets provides invaluable information towards the study of novel and emerging viruses that pose a threat to human health. This gold standard model can recapitulate many clinical signs of infection present in IAV-infected humans, support virus replication of human, avian, swine, and other zoonotic strains without prior adaptation, and permit evaluation of virus transmissibility by multiple modes. While ferrets have been employed in risk assessment settings for >20 years, results from this work are typically reported in discrete stand-alone publications, making aggregation of raw data from this work over time nearly impossible. Here, we describe a dataset of 728 ferrets inoculated with 126 unique IAV, conducted by a single research group under a uniform experimental protocol. This collection of morbidity, mortality, and viral titer data represents the largest publicly available dataset to date of in vivo-generated IAV infection outcomes on a per-ferret level.

Key considerations to improve the normalization, interpretation and reproducibility of morbidity data in mammalian models of viral disease.

Viral pathogenesis and therapeutic screening studies that utilize small mammalian models rely on the accurate quantification and interpretation of morbidity measurements, such as weight and body temperature, which can vary depending on the model, agent and/or experimental design used. As a result, morbidity-related data are frequently normalized within and across screening studies to aid with their interpretation. However, such data normalization can be performed in a variety of ways, leading to differences in conclusions drawn and making comparisons between studies challenging. Here, we discuss variability in the normalization, interpretation, and presentation of morbidity measurements for four model species frequently used to study a diverse range of human viral pathogens - mice, hamsters, guinea pigs and ferrets. We also analyze findings aggregated from influenza A virus-infected ferrets to contextualize this discussion. We focus on serially collected weight and temperature data to illustrate how the conclusions drawn from this information can vary depending on how raw data are collected, normalized and measured. Taken together, this work supports continued efforts in understanding how normalization affects the interpretation of morbidity data and highlights best practices to improve the interpretation and utility of these findings for extrapolation to public health contexts.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus of clade 2.3.4.4b isolated from a human case in Chile causes fatal disease and transmits between co-housed ferrets.

Clade 2.3.4.4b highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses have caused large outbreaks within avian populations on five continents, with concurrent spillover into a variety of mammalian species. Mutations associated with mammalian adaptation have been sporadically identified in avian isolates, and more frequently among mammalian isolates following infection. Reports of human infection with A(H5N1) viruses following contact with infected wildlife have been reported on multiple continents, highlighting the need for pandemic risk assessment of these viruses. In this study, the pathogenicity and transmissibility of A/Chile/25945/2023 HPAI A(H5N1) virus, a novel reassortant with four gene segments (PB1, PB2, NP, MP) from North American lineage, isolated from a severe human case in Chile, was evaluated in vitro and using the ferret model. This virus possessed a high capacity to cause fatal disease, characterized by high morbidity and extrapulmonary spread in virus-inoculated ferrets. The virus was capable of transmission to naïve contacts in a direct contact setting, with contact animals similarly exhibiting severe disease, but did not exhibit productive transmission in respiratory droplet or fomite transmission models. Our results indicate that the virus would need to acquire an airborne transmissible phenotype in mammals to potentially cause a pandemic. Nonetheless, this work warrants continuous monitoring of mammalian adaptations in avian viruses, especially in strains isolated from humans, to aid pandemic preparedness efforts.

Exploring associations between viral titer measurements and disease outcomes in ferrets inoculated with 125 contemporary influenza A viruses.

As use of the ferret model to study influenza A virus (IAV) pathogenicity increases, periodic assessment of data generated in this model is warranted, to identify features associated with virus replication throughout the respiratory tract and to refine future analyses. However, protocol-specific differences present between independent laboratories limit easy aggregation of virological data. We compiled viral titer and clinical data from >1,000 ferrets inoculated with 125 contemporary IAV under a consistent experimental protocol (including high- and low-pathogenicity avian, swine-origin, and human viruses, spanning H1, H2, H3, H5, H7, and H9 subtypes) and examined which meaningful and statistically supported associations were present among numerous quantitative measurements. Viral titers correlated positively between ferret nasal turbinate tissue, lung tissue, and nasal wash specimens, though the strength of the associations varied, notably regarding the particular nasal wash summary measure employed and properties of the virus itself. Use of correlation coefficients and mediation analyses further supported the interconnectedness of viral titer measurements taken at different sites throughout the respiratory tract. IAV possessing mammalian host adaptation markers in the HA and PB2 exhibited more rapid growth in the ferret upper respiratory tract early after infection, supported by quantities derived from infectious titer data to capture infection progression, compared with viruses bearing hallmarks of avian IAV. Collectively, this work identifies summary metrics most closely linked with virological and phenotypic outcomes in ferrets, supporting continued refinement of data analyzed from in vivo experimentation, notably from studies conducted to evaluate the public health risk posed by novel and emerging IAV.IMPORTANCEFerrets are frequently employed to study the pandemic potential of novel and emerging influenza A viruses. However, systematic retrospective analyses of data generated from these experiments are rarely performed, limiting our ability to identify trends in this data and explore how analyses can be refined. Using logarithmic viral titer and clinical data aggregated from one research group over 20 years, we assessed which meaningful and statistically supported associations were present among numerous quantitative measurements obtained from influenza A virus (IAV)-infected ferrets, including those capturing viral titers, infection progression, and disease severity. We identified numerous linear correlations between parameters assessing virus replication at discrete sites in vivo, including parameters capturing infection progression not frequently employed in the field, and sought to investigate the interconnected nature of these associations. This work supports continued refinement of data analyzed from in vivo experimentation, notably from studies which evaluate the public health risk posed by IAV.

Ferrets as a Mammalian Model to Study Influenza Virus-Bacteria Interactions.

Ferrets represent an invaluable model for the study of influenza virus pathogenicity and transmissibility. Ferrets are also employed for the study of bacterial pathogens that naturally infect humans at different anatomical sites. While viral and bacterial infection studies in isolation using animal models are important for furthering our understanding of pathogen biology and developing improved therapeutics, it is also critical to extend our knowledge to pathogen coinfections in vivo, to more closely examine interkingdom dynamics that may contribute to overall disease outcomes. We discuss how ferrets have been employed to study a diverse range of both influenza viruses and bacterial species and summarize key studies that have utilized the ferret model for primary influenza virus challenge followed by secondary bacterial infection. These copathogenesis studies have provided critical insight into the dynamic interplay between these pathogens, underscoring the utility of ferrets as a model system for investigating influenza virus-bacteria interactions.

Pathogenesis and Transmission Assessment of 3 Swine-Origin Influenza A(H3N2) Viruses With Zoonotic Risk to Humans Isolated in the United States, 2017-2020.

The sporadic occurrence of human infections with swine-origin influenza A(H3N2) viruses and the continual emergence of novel A(H3N2) viruses in swine herds underscore the necessity for ongoing assessment of the pandemic risk posed by these viruses. Here, we selected 3 recent novel swine-origin A(H3N2) viruses isolated between 2017 to 2020, bearing hemagglutinins from the 1990.1, 2010.1, or 2010.2 clades, and evaluated their ability to cause disease and transmit in a ferret model. We conclude that despite considerable genetic variances, all 3 contemporary swine-origin A(H3N2) viruses displayed a capacity for robust replication in the ferret respiratory tract and were also capable of limited airborne transmission. These findings highlight the continued public health risk of swine-origin A(H3N2) strains, especially in human populations with low cross-reactive immunity.

A naturally occurring HA-stabilizing amino acid (HA1-Y17) in an A(H9N2) low-pathogenic influenza virus contributes to airborne transmission.

IMPORTANCE: Despite the accumulation of evidence showing that airborne transmissible influenza A virus (IAV) typically has a lower pH threshold for hemagglutinin (HA) fusion activation, the underlying mechanism for such a link remains unclear. In our study, by using a pair of isogenic recombinant A(H9N2) viruses with a phenotypical difference in virus airborne transmission in a ferret model due to an acid-destabilizing mutation (HA1-Y17H) in the HA, we demonstrate that an acid-stable A(H9N2) virus possesses a multitude of advantages over its less stable counterpart, including better fitness in the ferret respiratory tract, more effective aerosol emission from infected animals, and improved host susceptibility. Our study provides supporting evidence for the requirement of acid stability in efficient airborne transmission of IAV and sheds light on fundamental mechanisms for virus airborne transmission.

Meeting Ferret Enrichment Needs in Infectious Disease Laboratory Settings.

Environmental enrichment is a necessary component of all research vivarium settings. However, appropriate enrichment decisions vary greatly depending on the species involved and the research use of the animals. The increasing use of ferrets in research settings-notably for modeling the pathogenicity and transmissibility of viral pathogens that require containment in ABSL-2 to -4 environments-presents a particular challenge for veterinary and research staff to ensure that enrichment needs for these animals are met consistently. Here, we discuss the species-specific enrichment needs of ferrets, enrichment considerations for ferrets housed in research settings, and the challenges and importance of providing appropriate enrichment during experimentation, including when ferrets are housed in high-containment facilities. This article is organized to support the easy availability of information that will facilitate the design and implementation of optimal environmental enrichment for ferrets used in diverse research efforts in vivarium settings.

Influenza A Virus Multicycle Replication Yields Comparable Viral Population Emergence in Human Respiratory and Ocular Cell Types.

While primarily considered a respiratory pathogen, influenza A virus (IAV) is nonetheless capable of spreading to, and replicating in, numerous extrapulmonary tissues in humans. However, within-host assessments of genetic diversity during multicycle replication have been largely limited to respiratory tract tissues and specimens. As selective pressures can vary greatly between anatomical sites, there is a need to examine how measures of viral diversity may vary between influenza viruses exhibiting different tropisms in humans, as well as following influenza virus infection of cells derived from different organ systems. Here, we employed human primary tissue constructs emulative of the human airway or corneal surface, and we infected both with a panel of human- and avian-origin IAV, inclusive of H1 and H3 subtype human viruses and highly pathogenic H5 and H7 subtype viruses, which are associated with both respiratory disease and conjunctivitis following human infection. While both cell types supported productive replication of all viruses, airway-derived tissue constructs elicited greater induction of genes associated with antiviral responses than did corneal-derived constructs. We used next-generation sequencing to examine viral mutations and population diversity, utilizing several metrics. With few exceptions, generally comparable measures of viral diversity and mutational frequency were detected following homologous virus infection of both respiratory-origin and ocular-origin tissue constructs. Expansion of within-host assessments of genetic diversity to include IAV with atypical clinical presentations in humans or in extrapulmonary cell types can provide greater insight into understanding those features most prone to modulation in the context of viral tropism. IMPORTANCE Influenza A virus (IAV) can infect tissues both within and beyond the respiratory tract, leading to extrapulmonary complications, such as conjunctivitis or gastrointestinal disease. Selective pressures governing virus replication and induction of host responses can vary based on the anatomical site of infection, yet studies examining within-host assessments of genetic diversity are typically only conducted in cells derived from the respiratory tract. We examined the contribution of influenza virus tropism on these properties two different ways: by using IAV associated with different tropisms in humans, and by infecting human cell types from two different organ systems susceptible to IAV infection. Despite the diversity of cell types and viruses employed, we observed generally similar measures of viral diversity postinfection across all conditions tested; these findings nonetheless contribute to a greater understanding of the role tissue type contributes to the dynamics of virus evolution within a human host.

Enhanced fitness of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 Delta variant in ferrets.

Competition assays were conducted in vitro and in vivo to examine how the Delta (B.1.617.2) variant displaced the prototype Washington/1/2020 (WA/1) strain. While WA/1 virus exhibited a moderately increased proportion compared to that in the inoculum following co-infection in human respiratory cells, Delta variant possessed a substantial in vivo fitness advantage as this virus becoming predominant in both inoculated and contact animals. This work identifies critical traits of the Delta variant that likely played a role in it becoming a dominant variant and highlights the necessities of employing multiple model systems to assess the fitness of newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Utility of Human In Vitro Data in Risk Assessments of Influenza A Virus Using the Ferret Model.

As influenza A viruses (IAV) continue to cross species barriers and cause human infection, the establishment of risk assessment rubrics has improved pandemic preparedness efforts. In vivo pathogenicity and transmissibility evaluations in the ferret model represent a critical component of this work. As the relative contribution of in vitro experimentation to these rubrics has not been closely examined, we sought to evaluate to what extent viral titer measurements over the course of in vitro infections are predictive or correlates of nasal wash and tissue measurements for IAV infections in vivo. We compiled data from ferrets inoculated with an extensive panel of over 50 human and zoonotic IAV (inclusive of swine-origin and high- and low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses associated with human infection) under a consistent protocol, with all viruses concurrently tested in a human bronchial epithelial cell line (Calu-3). Viral titers in ferret nasal wash specimens and nasal turbinate tissue correlated positively with peak titer in Calu-3 cells, whereas additional phenotypic and molecular determinants of influenza virus virulence and transmissibility in ferrets varied in their association with in vitro viral titer measurements. Mathematical modeling was used to estimate more generalizable key replication kinetic parameters from raw in vitro viral titers, revealing commonalities between viral infection progression in vivo and in vitro. Meta-analyses inclusive of IAV that display a diverse range of phenotypes in ferrets, interpreted with mathematical modeling of viral kinetic parameters, can provide critical information supporting a more rigorous and appropriate contextualization of in vitro experiments toward pandemic preparedness. IMPORTANCE Both in vitro and in vivo models are employed for assessing the pandemic potential of novel and emerging influenza A viruses in laboratory settings, but systematic examinations of how well viral titer measurements obtained in vitro align with results from in vivo experimentation are not frequently performed. We show that certain viral titer measurements following infection of a human bronchial epithelial cell line are positively correlated with viral titers in specimens collected from virus-inoculated ferrets and employ mathematical modeling to identify commonalities between viral infection progression between both models. These analyses provide a necessary first step in enhanced interpretation and incorporation of in vitro-derived data in risk assessment activities and highlight the utility of employing mathematical modeling approaches to more closely examine features of virus replication not identifiable by experimental studies alone.

Kinetics and magnitude of viral RNA shedding as indicators for Influenza A virus transmissibility in ferrets.

The ferret transmission model is routinely used to evaluate the pandemic potential of newly emerging influenza A viruses. However, concurrent measurement of viral load in the air is typically not a component of such studies. To address this knowledge gap, we measured the levels of virus in ferret nasal washes as well as viral RNA emitted into the air for 14 diverse influenza viruses, encompassing human-, swine-, and avian-origin strains. Here we show that transmissible viruses display robust replication and fast release into the air. In contrast, poorly- and non-transmissible viruses show significantly reduced or delayed replication along with lower detection of airborne viral RNA at early time points post inoculation. These findings indicate that efficient ferret-to-ferret transmission via the air is directly associated with fast emission of virus-laden particles; as such, quantification of viral RNA in the air represents a useful addition to established assessments of new influenza virus strains.

Detection of Airborne Influenza A and SARS-CoV-2 Virus Shedding following Ocular Inoculation of Ferrets.

Despite reports of confirmed human infection following ocular exposure with both influenza A virus (IAV) and SARS-CoV-2, the dynamics of virus spread throughout oculonasal tissues and the relative capacity of virus transmission following ocular inoculation remain poorly understood. Furthermore, the impact of exposure route on subsequent release of airborne viral particles into the air has not been examined previously. To assess this, ferrets were inoculated by the ocular route with A(H1N1)pdm09 and A(H7N9) IAVs and two SARS-CoV-2 (early pandemic Washington/1 and Delta variant) viruses. Virus replication was assessed in both respiratory and ocular specimens, and transmission was evaluated in direct contact or respiratory droplet settings. Viral RNA in aerosols shed by inoculated ferrets was quantified with a two-stage cyclone aerosol sampler (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH]). All IAV and SARS-CoV-2 viruses mounted a productive and transmissible infection in ferrets following ocular inoculation, with peak viral titers and release of virus-laden aerosols from ferrets indistinguishable from those from ferrets inoculated by previously characterized intranasal inoculation methods. Viral RNA was detected in ferret conjunctival washes from all viruses examined, though infectious virus in this specimen was recovered only following IAV inoculation. Low-dose ocular-only aerosol exposure or inhalation aerosol exposure of ferrets to IAV similarly led to productive infection of ferrets and shedding of aerosolized virus. Viral evolution during infection was comparable between all inoculation routes examined. These data support that both IAV and SARS-CoV-2 can establish a high-titer mammalian infection following ocular exposure that is associated with rapid detection of virus-laden aerosols shed by inoculated animals. IMPORTANCE Documented human infection with influenza viruses and SARS-CoV-2 has been reported among individuals wearing respiratory protection in the absence of eye protection, highlighting the capacity of these respiratory tract-tropic viruses to exploit nonrespiratory routes of exposure to initiate productive infection. However, comprehensive evaluations of how ocular exposure may modulate virus pathogenicity and transmissibility in mammals relative to respiratory exposure are limited and have not investigated multiple virus families side by side. Using the ferret model, we show that ocular exposure with multiple strains of either coronaviruses or influenza A viruses leads to an infection that results in shedding of detectable aerosolized virus from inoculated animals, contributing toward onward transmission of both viruses to susceptible contacts. Collectively, these studies support that the ocular surface represents a susceptible mucosal surface that, if exposed to a sufficient quantity of either virus, permits establishment of an infection which is similarly transmissible as that following respiratory exposure.

Comparative Assessment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Variants in the Ferret Model.

The continued spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in humans necessitates evaluation of variants for enhanced virulence and transmission. We used the ferret model to perform a comparative analysis of four SARS-CoV-2 strains, including an early pandemic isolate from the United States (WA1), and representatives of the Alpha, Beta, and Delta lineages. While Beta virus was not capable of pronounced replication in ferrets, WA1, Alpha, and Delta viruses productively replicated in the ferret upper respiratory tract, despite causing only mild disease with no overt histopathological changes. Strain-specific transmissibility was observed; WA1 and Delta viruses transmitted in a direct contact setting, whereas Delta virus was also capable of limited airborne transmission. Viral RNA was shed in exhaled air particles from all inoculated animals but was highest for Delta virus. Prior infection with SARS-CoV-2 offered varied protection against reinfection with either homologous or heterologous variants. Notable genomic variants in the spike protein were most frequently detected following WA1 and Delta virus infection. IMPORTANCE Continued surveillance and risk assessment of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants are critical for pandemic response and preparedness. As such, in vivo evaluations are indispensable for early detection of variants with enhanced virulence and transmission. Here, we used the ferret model to compare the pathogenicity and transmissibility of an original SARS-CoV-2 isolate (USA-WA1/2020 [WA1]) to those of a panel of Alpha, Beta, and Delta variants, as well as to evaluate protection from homologous and heterologous reinfection. We observed strain-specific differences in replication kinetics in the ferret respiratory tract and virus load emitted into the air, revealing enhanced transmissibility of the Delta virus relative to previously detected strains. Prior infection with SARS-CoV-2 provided varied levels of protection from reinfection, with the Beta strain eliciting the lowest level of protection. Overall, we found that ferrets represent a useful model for comparative assessments of SARS-CoV-2 infection, transmission, and reinfection.

Influenza A virus infection and pathology in nasal and periocular tissues after ocular inoculation in ferrets.

Influenza A viruses (IAV) cause mammalian infections following several transmission routes. Considering the anatomic proximity and connection between the nasopharynx and periocular tissues, there is a need to understand the dynamics of virus spread between these sites following both respiratory and nonrespiratory viral transmission. We examined virus distribution and associated inflammation within nasal and periocular tissues during the acute phase of H1N1 IAV infection in ferrets following intranasal or ocular inoculation. Ocular and intranasal inoculations with IAV caused comparable viral antigen distribution and inflammation in the nasal passages, though infection kinetics and magnitude differed by inoculation route. Ocular inoculation was associated with inflammation in the conjunctiva and lacrimal glands. Although intranasal inoculation was also associated with periocular inflammation, the onset was delayed relative to ocular inoculation. This work underscores the importance of investigating extrapulmonary tissues following mammalian infection with respiratory pathogens, even after intranasal inoculation.

Robustness of the Ferret Model for Influenza Risk Assessment Studies: a Cross-Laboratory Exercise.

Past pandemic influenza viruses with sustained human-to-human transmissibility have emerged from animal influenza viruses. Employment of experimental models to assess the pandemic risk of emerging zoonotic influenza viruses provides critical information supporting public health efforts. Ferret transmission experiments have been utilized to predict the human-to-human transmission potential of novel influenza viruses. However, small sample sizes and a lack of standardized protocols can introduce interlaboratory variability, complicating interpretation of transmission experimental data. To assess the range of variation in ferret transmission experiments, a global exercise was conducted by 11 laboratories using two common stock H1N1 influenza viruses with different transmission characteristics in ferrets. Parameters known to affect transmission were standardized, including the inoculation route, dose, and volume, as well as a strict 1:1 donor/contact ratio for respiratory droplet transmission. Additional host and environmental parameters likely to affect influenza transmission kinetics were monitored and analyzed. The overall transmission outcomes for both viruses across 11 laboratories were concordant, suggesting the robustness of the ferret model for zoonotic influenza risk assessment. Among environmental parameters that varied across laboratories, donor-to-contact airflow directionality was associated with increased transmissibility. To attain high confidence in identifying viruses with moderate to high transmissibility or low transmissibility under a smaller number of participating laboratories, our analyses support the notion that as few as three but as many as five laboratories, respectively, would need to independently perform viral transmission experiments with concordant results. This exercise facilitates the development of a more homogenous protocol for ferret transmission experiments that are employed for the purposes of risk assessment. IMPORTANCE Following detection of a novel virus, rapid characterization efforts (both in vitro and in vivo) are undertaken at numerous laboratories worldwide to evaluate the relative risk posed to human health. Aggregation of these data are critical, but the use of nonstandardized protocols can make interpretation of divergent results a challenge. For evaluation of virus transmissibility, a multifactorial trait which can only be evaluated in vivo, identifying intrinsic levels of variability between groups can improve the utility of these data, as well as ensure that experiments are performed with sufficient replication to ensure high confidence in compiled results. Using the ferret transmission model and two influenza A viruses, we conducted a multicenter standardization exercise to improve the interpretation of transmission data generated during risk assessment activities; this exercise serves as a model for future efforts employing both in vitro and in vivo models against possible pandemic pathogens.

Pathogenesis and Transmissibility of North American Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus in Ferrets.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses have spread rapidly throughout North American flyways in recent months, affecting wild birds in over 40 states. We evaluated the pathogenicity and transmissibility of a representative virus using a ferret model and examined replication kinetics of this virus in human respiratory tract cells.

Pathogenesis and transmission of human seasonal and swine-origin A(H1) influenza viruses in the ferret model.

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) in the swine reservoir constantly evolve, resulting in expanding genetic and antigenic diversity of strains that occasionally cause infections in humans and pose a threat of emerging as a strain capable of human-to-human transmission. For these reasons, there is an ongoing need for surveillance and characterization of newly emerging strains to aid pandemic preparedness efforts, particularly for the selection of candidate vaccine viruses and conducting risk assessments. Here, we performed a parallel comparison of the pathogenesis and transmission of genetically and antigenically diverse swine-origin A(H1N1) variant (v) and A(H1N2)v, and human seasonal A(H1N1)pdm09 IAVs using the ferret model. Both groups of viruses were capable of replication in the ferret upper respiratory tract; however, variant viruses were more frequently isolated from the lower respiratory tract as compared to the human-adapted viruses. Regardless of virus origin, observed clinical signs of infection differed greatly between strains, with some viruses causing nasal discharge, sneezing and, in some instances, diarrhea in ferrets. The most striking difference between the viruses was the ability to transmit through the air. Human-adapted viruses were capable of airborne transmission between all ferret pairs. In contrast, only one out of the four tested variant viruses was able to transmit via the air as efficiently as the human-adapted viruses. Overall, this work highlights the need for sustained monitoring of emerging swine IAVs to identify strains of concern such as those that are antigenically different from vaccine strains and that possess adaptations required for efficient respiratory droplet transmission in mammals.